
Class L°LC&_ 



Copyright If 



COBMGOT DEPOSE 



TnEG°LDENN°RTfl 




RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY, Publishers, Chicago and New York. 



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JAN 31 1898 < 




THE GOLDEN NORTH 



A Vast Country of Inexhaustible Gold 

Fields, and a Land of Illimitable 

Cereal and Stock Raising 

Capabilities. 



BY C. R. TUTTLE, 



Author "Canadian North Land," Meteorological Observer of 

Canadian Government Expeditions to Hudson's Bay 

and Strait, and the Par Northwest. 



.ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. 



CHICAGO: 
Rand, McNally & Co., Publishers, 



^ 



5W°\^ 




tut /Ph 






Copyright, 1897, by Rand, McNally & Co. 



* 



PREFACE. 



The rush after the rich deposits of virgin gold in the 
far northwest will be doubly rewarded. Those who go 
in seach of the precious metal, with proper equipment, 
will not return empty handed. Experiments already 
made warrant the statement that gold may be found 
there in great abundance, and that it may be separated 
from the baser material with which it is associated, at 
slight cost, although of course, only be enduring the 
hardships incident to a miner's life in a frozen country. 
To those willing, and physically able to make the 
necessary sacrifices, the Golden North offers a Golden 
Prize. 

But it offers more than this. Hard by the vast auri- 
ferous slopes which hang down from the summit of the 
watershed that divides the two great river systems of 
the north, are vast alluvial plains stretching up to the 
65th parallel, where stock raising, dairying and the 
cultivation of cereals may be carried on without limit 
and with great profit. 

When the northwest routes to the gold fields have 
been opened for travel as they will be in a short time, 
returning gold hunters will not only exhibit the for- 
tunes taken from the banks of creek and gulch of the 
higher elevations, but they will tell of the mighty val- 
leys and prairies of the basins of the Peace, Athabasca 
and Mackenzie rivers; and, their telling will result in 
the colonization and development of the greatest ag- 



ii PREFACE. 

ricultural and stock raising El Dorado on the face of 
the earth. 

The north is a country of gold. It will become a land 
of golden harvests. For centuries Nature has been 
pushing back the cold, farther and farther towards the 
pole, and been preparing a new land for the over- 
crowded populations of these lower latitudes. The 
Klondike bells are now ringing out the glory of that 
land. The march of the weary, the disappointed, and 
the oppressed .is to be into higher latitudes, where the 
bounties of Providence have been spread with a lavish 
hand. 

CHARLES R. TUTTLE. 

Chicago, Sept. 15, 1897. 



_N 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 
GOLD AND COLONIZATION. 

Northwesterly trend of progress — Gradual advance of soil, 
forests, cereals, population, commerce and civilization 
towards the Arctic — Extent of the gold-bearing districts 
of the great North— History repeating itself— Prospects 
of the Golden North. 

CHAPTER II. 
VASTNESS OF THE NORTH LAND. 

Its mighty river systems and basins — Basin of the Yukon 
— The wonderful Peace River country — Fertile plains 
and prairies extending up to the 64th parellel — The 
great plains of the Saskatchewan basin — The Churchill 
country and the basins of James' and Ungava Bay. 

CHAPTER III. 
TRADING POSTS OP THE NORTH. 

Trails across the continent in the sub-Arctic belt — Many 
that have been traveled for two centuries — Short cut to 
the gold fields of the Klondike from Edmonton via Lake 
Athabaska and the Upper Mackenzie — The quicker and 
cheaper route — List of North Land trading stations — 
Hints on map study. 

CHAPTER IV. 
THE YUKON DISTRICT-ALASKA. 

From Bering Sea to the junction of the Pelly and Lewis 
rivers— Cereal, vegetable and stock capabilities— The 
forests and climate— Value of the white spruce. 
(Hi) 



IV CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER V. 
UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 

Auriferous areas lying west of the Mackenzie watershed — 
Territory is duplicated in extent and gold bearing- 
riches on the slopes east of the summit — Three great 
routes to the Klondike — Reasons why the all-overland 
route will become most favored. 

CHAPTER VI. 

UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 
(Continued.) 

Pioneers of the Klondike country — Administration of min- 
ing laws, tariff regulations and homestead entry rules 
extended to the district by the Canadian government — 
Explorations of Dr. Dawson and Surveyor Ogilvie — In- 
crease of mining camps. 

CHAPTER VII. 
THE ALEUTIAN DISTRICT-ALASKA. 

A mountainous and volcanic country — Broad meadows and 
sloping hillsides— Stock raising and cereal capabilities- 
Altitude limit of vegetation. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
SITKAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 

Channels, natural canals, rivers and lakes— The water high- 
ways of the country — Great timber resources of Southern 
Alaska — Wild berries abundant — Pest of mosquitoes and 
flies — Stock and agriculture. 



^ 



CHAPTER IX. 
UPPER YUKON— LEWIS RIVER. 



From Lake Bennett to the head of the Lewis— Down the 
Lewis to the Yukon — A country of lakes and rivers— 
The Klondike region proper — Its extent — Rich gold dis- 
coveries eastward from the Klondike— Dr. Dawson's 
opinion of the Klondike — Surveyor Ogilvie's explora- 
tions. 



CONTENTS. V 

CHAPTER X. 

UPPER YUKON AND TRIBUTARIES. 

The North Country from the International boundary to the 
junction of the Lewis and Pelly — The Stewart River — 
Other streams— Sixty Mile River— The Klondike River 
and tributary creeks — Forty Mile River. 

CHAPTER XL 

UPPER YUKON— AGRICULTURE AND TIMBER. 

Only a small proportion of the region available for cereal 
and vegetable crops — Considerable areas of timber suit- 
able for manufacturing purposes — An abundance of trees 
for firewood and for all mining necessities. 

CHAPTER XII. 

WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 

Inexhaustible deposits of placer and quartz gold — The sil- 
ver-bearing rock — Vast coal fields — Reports of govern- 
ment officials that read like tales of the Arabian Nights 
— Sensational reports of Surveyor Ogilvie. 

CHAPTER XIII. 
PROCESS OF PLACER MINING. 

Methods of the prospector — Use of the pan, the rocker and 
the sluice — Mining in the far north — Continuous day- 
light in summer and almost perpetual darkness in win- 
ter — Filling the hours of summer with hard work — 
"Burning" in winter— Vast Peace River gold discoveries. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
FURS, FISH AND GAME OF THE KLONDIKE. 

The silver gray, black and red fox — Abundance of game — 
The Caribou, moose and the grizzly, brown, black and 
silver-tip bears— Salmon and other fish. 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XV. 
IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 

Verified reports of rich, gold discoveries and the arrival of 
the precious metal in this country likely -„o send a vast 
population from the United States to the Klondike 
regions — Might possibly lead to a war between England 
and this country — The feeling in London — Chicago and 
London competitors — Routes for railroad communica- 
tion — Settlement of the boundary question. 

CHAPTER XVI. 
THE GREAT FERTILE NORTH. 

A boundless territory of inexhaustible bread, meat and 
dairy capabilities — Coal and other resources — How* the 
lower levels are sheltered from storms and cold. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
CANADIAN NORTHWEST. 

Districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Atha- 
baska — The vast fertile plains to the north of these — 
Greatest agricultural and stock raising region on earth. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
RESOURCES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

Excellent climate — Abundance of coal — Gold in inexhaust- 
ible quantities — Iron, copper, galena, mercury, plati- 
num, plumbago, mica, salt and many other valuable 
deposits — Progress of the mines. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 

Trip from Port Simpson on the Pacific to the summit of 
Pine River Pass — Wonderful mountain and valley scen- 
ery — Resources of the mighty valleys. 



CONTENTS. Vll 

CHAPTER XX. 

FROM THE ROCKIES TO CHURCHILL. 

A transcontinental route from Atlantic to Pacific through 
Hudson's Bay and Strait — Across the rich, fertile prair- 
ies, through "the Pine River Pass— Vast areas of rich 
lands. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 

Description of the immediate Klondike country — Life at 
Dawson City — Boom in real estate — Trading and the 
high price of supplies — Saloons and gambling — The 
future of Dawson City. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

NORTHWEST ROUTES TO GOLD FIELDS. 

Description of trail by the Lewis and Peace rivers — Short 
and cheap cut to the Klondike — Route by the Pelly and 
Liard rivers. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

YUKON AND JUNEAU ROUTES. 

Description of St. Michaels — Temperature and ice — Season 
of navigation on the Yukon — "Fort Get There" — The 
Dyea and Skaguay passes. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

ALASKAN BOUNDARY QUESTION. 

Alaskan boundary controversy and correspondence be- 
tween the United States and Dominion of Canada- 
Population of Alaska — Increase owing to gold dis- 
coveries. 

CHAPTER XXV. 
TOWNS AND TRADING POSTS OF ALASKA. 

Sitka and Juneau — St. Michaels and the trading posts of the 
Aleutian Islands — Douglas City and the great Treadwell 
gold mine — Trade and traffic. 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE FUR SEAL CONTROVERSY. 

Account of the fur sealing grounds and their great vaUie— 
The annual catch — Pelagic sealing — History of the 
great controversy — Solution of all difficulties practi- 
cally accomplished. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

SALMON, WHALES, COD AND HERRING. 

Extent of the Alaskan fisheries — Statistics of the salmon 
catch — Product of oil, bone and ivory — Cod and herring 
fisheries. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

COMMERCE, GOVERNMENT, TRANSPORTXTION. 

Transportation facilities — Exports arid imports — Territorial 
government — The civil list of Alaska. 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

RESOURCES OF HUDSON'S BAY. 

Mountains of pure mica — The salmon fisheries of Ungava — 
The Eskimos and their language — Extracts from prayer 
and hymn books — On to Churchill. 

CHAPTER XXX. 

IN HUDSON'S STRAIT. 

Its length, width and islands — Height of its tides, and ve- 
locity of its tidal currents — Talks with Eskimos. 

CHAPTER XXXI. 



CAPTURING A WHALE. 

Scenes and impressions of Marble Island — Visit to the Rose 
Welcome — The "crow's nest" and Lookout-man — Har- 
pooning a whale — An exciting contest — A "flurry." 






CONTENTS. IX 

CHAPTER XXXII. 
DAY AT FORT CHURCHILL. 

Rev. Mr. Lofthouse — A curious courtship by photograph and 
letter — An intended bride starts from the old country 
for Hudson's Bay to become the wife of a missionary— 
The porpoise fishery. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

OBSERVATIONS AT YORK FACTORY. 

Buildings at the trading post — The Churchill and the school 
— An interesting murder trial. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 
PORPOISE, WALRUS AND SEAL. 

Character and value of these animals — The porpoise fish- 
eries — The Walrus hunt — Peculiarities of Narwhal — 
Probabilities of a seal breeding ground in Hudson's 
Strait — Great possibilities of the oil industry. 

CHAPTER XXXV. 
FUR BEARING ANIMALS. 

The silver, blue, gray, red and white foxes — The ermine — 
The marten — The otter — The varying hare — The lynx 
— The wolf — The sable, musk ox, etc. — The fur trade. 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 
OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS. 

Romance of the marriage of an Eskimo Princess — Habits of 
life— The Kayak. 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 

NATURE'S NEWEST LAND. 

Wonders of the new north — Product of natural laws for the 
last one thousand years — Specific work of glaziers — New 
areas for many millions — Probable gold and other 
products — Hard times to disappear as dew before an 
advancing sun. 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 

Interesting article by Director Preston of the United States 
Mint — Statistics. 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

HON. CLIFFORD SEFTON. 

Minister of the Interior of the Canadian Government— Head 
Official in charge of the New El Dorado. 

CHAPTER XL. 
THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 

Detailed description of the Northwest Route, via the Peace, 
Liard and Pelly rivers from Edmonton to the Yukon. 



APPENDIX. 

I. — Routes and distances. 

II. — Facts about gold. 

III. — Canadian and Alaskan mining laws and regulations. 

IV. — Canadian land regulations. 

V— Cost of supplies and outfits. 



THE GOLDEN NORTH 



CHAPTER I. 

GOLD AND COLONIZATION. 

Northwesterly trend of progress— Gradual advance of soil, 
forests, cereals, population, commerce and civilization 
towards the Arctic— Extent of the gold-bearing districts 
of the great North — History repeating itself — Prospects 
of the Golden North. 

The gold deposits of the Klondike are probably un- 
equalled in any part of the world either as to their 
extent or the significance of their discovery. It is evi- 
dent to those acquainted with the character and geo- 
logical formation of that region, including the whole 
country traversed by the gulches and creeks flowing 
into the upper waters of the Yukon and the Mackenzie, 
that still richer strikes will be made in the near future, 
and that the gold fever of 1897 will be eclipsed by that 
of 1898. 

Beyond doubt the efforts of the prospector will be 
richly rewarded in both placer and quartz diggings 
throughout nearly the whole country between the 55th 
and 65th parallels and the 125th and 145th degrees, an 
auriferous area of nearly 600,000 square miles, and 
sufficient to profitably engage 250,000 miners. This 
does not include the gold fields of southern Alaska, 
nor the extensive yellow metal deposits in the greater 
part of British Columbia, but it does cover the Koot- 
enai discoveries. 

This vast gold bearing tract consists of the water- 
shed or great summit-divide between the main upper 
tributaries of the Yukon and the Mackenzie rivers, the 



6 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

lower depressions of which are from 1,500 to 3,000 feet 
above sea level. It is well timbered and is subject to a 
snow fall of from two to five feet according to altitude, 
the higher elevations receiving the heaviest snow man- 
tle during the winter season, which extends from the 
middle of September or first of October to the latter 
part of April, or between seven and eight months, 
leaving but a little more than four months of summer 
and autumn. There is no spring season, properly 
speaking, in that country. These four months, how- 
ever, contain in the aggregate, as many hours of sun- 
shine as six summer months in the latitude of Chica- 
go- 

The country is rugged, traversed everywhere by 
deep gulches and mountain streams, the formations 
almost invariably indicating the presence of gold de- 
posits in both gravel and quartz. Those best ac- 
quainted with the region expect that far richer strikes 
will be made considerably east of the Klondike and 
on both sides of the summit dividing the two great 
river systems. 

These gold discoveries which are now engrossing 
the attention of the people everywhere are significant. 
They will undoubtedly mark a new epoch in the prog- 
ress and development of this continent. Thousands 
upon thousands will push northward after gold. Trans- 
portation facilities will have to be provided so that sup- 
plies will be cheaper and more abundant, and the cost, 
in time and money, of reaching tfte country be greatly 
reduced. In this way the vast extent and wonderful 
resources of the whole north country will become gen- 
erally known, and hundreds of thousands will rush 
into it, not only to dig gold, but to produce bread 
and meat from the broad fertile plains, valleys and 
prairies, to exchange for it. 

It is difficult for one who has traveled extensively in 
this great golden north land to write in what those ig- 
norant of its character will concede to be conservative 
terms. The natural history surveyors of the United 



GOLD AND COLONIZATION. 7 

States and Canada, who are best acquainted with the 
capabilities of the north, persist in making their re- 
ports in what those who have never visited the country 
characterize as extravagant terms. 

It is left for the Hudson's Bay Company's trading 
post officials to speak disparagingly of the land. They 
have practiced in that line of policy for more than three 
generations, under instructions from London, in order 
that the company might be left to enjoy a monopoly 
of the fur trade. But all others who have seen the won- 
derful north, talk of its resources in words of irre- 
pressible enthusiasm. It is impossible for them to do 
otherwise. 

Gold discoveries have led to the settlement and de- 
velopment of many countries. The great cereal and 
fruit resources of California would probably have re- 
mained unknown for one or two generations longer 
than they did, had it not been that the discovery of rich 
deposits of the yellow metal attracted an army of pros- 
pectors thither in 1849.' 

In the Golden North the early history of California 
is repeating itself on more than one line. Thousands 
will become wealthy in the diggings of the Klondike 
and the creek and gulch regions of the upper Yukon 
and the Mackenzie, but many hundreds of thousands 
will find happy homes of peace and plenty in the vast 
agricultural and stock raising valleys, and on the fer- 
tile plains and prairies of the wonderful north land, as 
a result of information concerning the resources of that 
country which the gold hunters are sure to disseminate. 
Without this agency the resources of the north would 
probably remain a sealed book for an indefinite period. 

Indeed the thoughtful reader will ask, what means 
this wild clanging of the Klondike bells? Is it the yel- 
low dust that is being washed from bars and banks of 
river and gulch? 

Yes, that and more. 

It is the voice of the mighty north calling to the 
over-crowded and depressed centers of population in 



S THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the United States to march into higher latitudes and 
there to take possession of boundless riches. 

May it not be the ringing up the dawn of an area of 
prosperity that shall banish economic heresies in this 
country, and ultimately change the political map of a 
hemisphere? 

The voice of the Klondike may be regarded as the 
class bell of the World's University calling the peo- 
ple to the study of a new problem and of a new coun- 
try. The nation's schoolmaster has opened the text- 
book of the north, and the struggling, discontented 
masses are to lay aside their threadbare delusions of 
silver restoration, the social democracy, and the co- 
operative commonwealth. They are now to repudiate 
false teachers, turn their backs upon false gods, and 
realize the saving truth that the earth possesses 
"enough for each, enough for all, enough forever 
more." 

People will come to their right senses. They will 
cease to contend for the bone that has already been 
gnawed bare, and will flock into new pastures, rich not 
only in precious metals, but in illimitable possibilities 
of bread and meat. 

And what a text-book! 

From its pages pupils of an older growth than those 
who fill our school houses will learn how nature is 
gradually extending her mantle of soil and vegetation 
over the rocks of the north towards the shores of the 
Arctic Sea. They will read and dream of a receding 
pole and a slow but portentous revolution of the earth 
from north to south, placing the. northern habitable 
boundary of the continent about one hundred miles 
nearer the axis with each century. Nor are they to be 
left to theory as to these phenomena. Hudson's Bay 
trading posts from ioo to 200 years standing, stretch- 
ing from the rugged upper Labrador to Bering Sea, are 
to give testimony and to declare that in the brief period 
of their existence, soil and vegetation and forests and 



GOLD AND COLONIZATION. 9 

cereal growth have come to them from the south and 
have grown up around them on the once barren rocks. 

From that wonderful text-book of the north, they 
are to realize that altitude far more than latitude gov- 
erns thermal conditions of the Arctic zone, and that 
while the rocks, mountains, hills, and gulches abound 
in practically inexhaustible deposits of gold and other 
mineral treasures, the valleys and plains and broad 
prairies of the region await the directing touch of man 
to yield cereals and cattle sufficient to glut all the bread 
and meat markets of earth. From the pages of that 
book they are to be told of the innumerable herds of 
sea-faring mammals, including oil and fur-bearing 
seals, walruses, porpoises and whales, from the prod- 
ucts of which two hemispheres may be abundantly 
supplied with oil, hides, bone and ivory; and they will 
hear of the millions of tons of the best salmon caught in 
any waters, and of all the many other resources of the 
rugged land so well calculated to yield brain and mus- 
cle and wealth to all who will go up to inhabit its 
mighty basins and treasure-bearing summits. 

Before a dozen pages of that wonderful text-book 
of the north are gone over and understood, thousands 
and hundreds of thousands will flock to that land 
"flowing with milk and honey," hitherto hidden from 
immigration and yet hard by our doors. Gold is there 
in abundance, but resources of even greater intrinsic 
value are there, and these will eventually outweigh the 
importance of the gold. 

And all this is but another stride in the northwest- 
ward progress of man. 

The world's march of commerce, and science and skill 
In errands of blessing its work to fulfill 
Moves in the same course, — northwesterly still. 

The directive magnetic force that controls the needle 
is not a more attractive problem than is the unerring 
northwesterly trend of human progress. Westward 
and northward have been the marching orders until 

2 



10 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the people of the present generation must look south- 
ward and eastward for the homes of their ancestors. 
The greatest deeds have always been performed in 
high latitude, because the highest habitable latitudes 
produce the greatest men. And yet, strange as it may 
appear, the north is always underrated. 

Go to the Eastern hemisphere for examples of this. 
Half a century before Christ, Caesar concluded a series 
of great victories in the northwest, by subjugating the 
hardy inhabitants of Britain; but this was regarded 
by the Romans as placing the Imperial standard on 
the utmost confines of the north rather than as a con- 
quest of valuable territory. A few centuries and the 
island camping-ground of the Roman Conqueror be- 
came mistress of the world. Upon those northern 
shores a mighty commerce began to develop, and vast 
industrial enterprises grew up, until, in every part of 
the earth, England was hailed as the greatest nation 
under the sun. But there was no prophet to foretell 
England's greatness, nor was there anything in the 
general appearance of the country to attract attention. 
Its high latitude is one of the secrets of Britain's im- 
portance. 

History is ever repeating itself, and the political 
transformations of the old world may yet, to a great 
extent, be re-enacted in the new. Here on this con- 
tinent the trend of all material progress is northwest- 
erly. The flow of immigration is northwesterly, and 
the Creator, as if to make way for its latest advance, 
has pushed back, as it were, the cold of the sub-arctic 
regions nearer to the pole, and extended the vast fer- 
tile belt of the northern temperate zone from the great 
lakes to the head waters of the Mackenzie and the 
Yukon. 



VASTNESS OF THE NORTH LAND. 1 1 



CHAPTER II. 
VASTNESS OF THE NORTH LAND. 

Its mighty river systems and basins— Basin of the Yukon 
— The wonderful Peace River country — Fertile plains 
and prairies extending up to the 64th parallel— The 
great plains of the Saskatchewan basin— The Churchill 
country and the basins of James' and Ungava Bay. 

In order to form a correct idea of the extent of the 
north country, it will be advisable to briefly glance at 
the whole continental plain which stretches north and 
south between the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic 
Ocean. This plain is bounded on the west by the 
Rocky Mountains throughout its whole extent, and 
on the east side by a less elevated plateau known as 
the Appalachian Range. This great plain occupies 
the whole of the continent between the western and 
eastern mountain ranges, and in the far north it broad- 
ens, stretching from the western shores of Hudson's 
Bay and James' Bay to the head waters of the Macken- 
zie and the Yukon, where the mountain passes do not 
reach an elevation of more than from 1,000 to 2,500 
feet. This vast plain is divided by its river system into 
three perfectly distinct drainage basins. One drains to 
the south into the Gulf of Mexico ; another into the At- 
lantic by the channel of the great river St. Lawrence ; 
and the third, north into the arctic and sub-arctic 
waters. 

Of these three great basins that of the St. Lawrence 
is decidedly the smallest, while the northern is larger 
than the other two together. The St. Lawrence basin, 
divided by the boundary between the United States 
and Canada, occupies part of both countries. The 
southern basin is wholly in the United States, while a 



12 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

greater portion of the northern basin is in British 
Canadian territory. 

The north and south basins are separated by the 
49th parallel of latitude, which in addition to marking 
the international boundary line between central Cana- 
da and the United States, runs along very close to what 
is known as the watershed. It will thus be seen that 
the great continental plain of North America is divided 
naturally as well as politically near its center. 

Our attention must be confined to the northern 
basin, or basins, for the region is physically subdi- 
vided by several extensive river systems. Beginning 
at the western coast of Alaska, we have first the Yukon 
basin, which is over 2,000 miles long, extending up 
into the Canadian northwest from the 141st degree 
to considerably beyond the 130th, until its upper 
waters interlock with those of the upper Mackenzie 
River, on the summit of the northern Rockies. This 
vast area of the Yukon, consisting of about 400,000 
square miles, or nearly the whole of Alaska, is a rug- 
ged, mountainous, snowbound country, which will be 
more fully described later on. 

Crossing the mountains through any of the passes 
between the 55th and 65th parallels, we come to per- 
haps the largest and most fertile subdivision of the 
great northern basin, known as the Peace River coun- 
try. This vast area is drained by the Peace and Atha- 
basca rivers and their numerous tributaries, flowing 
into Lake Athabasca, which is only 400 feet above the 
level of the sea; and by the Peace River and its nu- 
merous tributaries stretching far up into the moun- 
tains, flowing also into Lake Athabasca; by the Great 
Slave River, flowing from Lake Athabasca into Great 
Slave Lake at Fort Resolution ; and by the Mackenzie 
River, the Mountain River and the many branches 
which flow into it. This mighty valley, comprising 
the largest area of cereal and stock-producing lands in 
one body to be found anywhere in the world, has an 
elevation above sea level from 400 to 1,500 feet, and 



VASTNESS OF THE NORTH LAND. 1 3 

enjoys a climate equal in all respects to that of Mary- 
land, although of course its winters are longer, and its 
summers are shorter as to number of days, but not as 
to aggregate number of hours of sunshine. This al- 
most illimitable territory, rich beyond description in 
agricultural, fruit, and meat-producing resources, lies 
between the 55th and 64th parallels of latitude and the 
105th and 120th degrees of longitude, and comprises 
nearly 500,000 square miles. This great plain, prairie, 
or park country, is but slightly timbered, although 
there are forests of considerable growth all along the 
foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains which are every- 
where penetrated by the creeks and tributary streams 
of the upper Mackenzie, the Peace and the Athabasca 
rivers. According to the reports of the natural his- 
tory surveys of the Canadian Dominion, there are as 
rich gold deposits on the eastern slopes of the Rockies 
in the quartz formation and river banks and bars of 
the upper western branches of the Mackenzie as on the 
western slope in the Klondike region. 

Passing from the Peace River country southeast- 
ward, we come to the higher plain, almost as extensive, 
of the north and south branches of the Saskatchewan 
and the Battle and Deer rivers, which are located be- 
tween them, and the Saskatchewan itself, from the con- 
fluence of the two principal branches to Lake Winni- 
peg. The Saskatchewan system of rivers, which drain 
the basin between Lake Winnipeg and the Rocky 
Mountains, aggregate an almost incredible length. 
The country has an elevation above sea level of from 
900 to 4,000 feet and is quite heavily timbered not only 
in the neighborhood of Lake Winnipeg but along the 
foot-hills of the Rockies and on the borders of most 
of the streams, especially in the more northerly and 
westernly districts. This area of cereal and stock-sus- 
taining country lies between the 49th and 55th paral- 
lels of latitude and between the 90th and 115th, and 
farther to the north, 120th degrees of longitude, and 
comprises about 500,000 square miles. This region is 



14 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

already quite well known and is being rapidly settled 
and developed both as to its agricultural and stock- 
raising capabilities. It includes the province of Mani- 
toba and the territories of Kewatin, Saskatchewan, As- 
siniboia, and Alberta. The territory of Athabasca lies 
to the north of Alberta at the threshold of the great 
Peace River country, which is yet unsettled, and of 
course undeveloped in any way. Our knowledge of 
that extensive territory is derived from traveling 
through it, and from reports and meteorological data 
gathered and given out by Hudson's Bay trading-post 
officials. 

There is a smaller basin, practically within and be- 
tween the two great districts mentioned, lying to the 
north of the latter and to the west of the former. This 
is the basin of the Churchill, flowing from Reindeer 
Lake to Hudson's Bay. There are a large number of 
Hudson's Bay trading posts in this territory, and from 
the reports of those in charge of them, we learn that 
while a century ago there were no forests bordering 
any of the lakes and rivers thereabouts, there is now 
well developed tamarac ranging from five to fifteen 
inches in diameter extending almost down to Fort 
Churchill on the western shores of Hudson's Bay. 

The outlet for the drainage of the great Saskatche- 
wan country from Lake Winnipeg to Hudson's Bay is 
by way of the Nelson, the Hayes, and the Severn riv- 
ers, the first and the last being about 550 miles in 
length and the second finding its way into the northern 
waters of Lake Winnipeg at Norway House through 
a series of smaller lakes to the northwest. This coun- 
try between Lake Winnipeg and the Hudson's Bay is 
all pretty heavily timbered, both the soil and the for- 
ests having been largely developed within the last 
century. 

There is another basin in the north drained by the 
rivers flowing into James' Bay, the Albany, the Moose 
and the Abittibi being the principal streams, some of 



VASTNESS OF THE NORTH LAND. 1 5 

them reaching nearly as far south as Lake Superior. 
This section is heavily timbered. 

Eastward from the east-main coast of Hudson's Bay 
and extending half way across the great peninsula be- 
tween that inland sea and the Labrador coast is another 
vast basin drained by the Whale, Big and East Main 
rivers. This basin is all heavily timbered with tama- 
rac as far north as the 53d parallel of north latitude, 
and is said to contain rich mineral deposits consisting 
of gold and copper. There is still another basin far- 
ther to the eastward, drained by the Ungava and 
Whale rivers, which flow into Ungava Bay at Fort 
Chimo. Near the mouth of the Ungava River, in the 
Laurentian formation, there are mountains of pure 
mica, sufficiently extensive, perhaps, to supply the 
whole world with that commodity. The streams flow- 
ing into Ungava Bay are filled with salmon of the very 
finest quality, and for several years back two refrigera- 
tor steamers have been plying between these waters 
and the English metropolis in the salmon trade. It is 
a remarkable fact that with the traps used to catch 
these valuable fish, a moderate sized steamship can be 
loaded in a single tide. This basin is also heavily tim- 
bered. The upper portion of it has been so for many 
years back; and the lower portion, extending down to 
Fort Chimo, has begun to produce timber within the 
last three-quarters of a century. - 

In addition to the extensive areas mentioned, there 
are Southern Alaska and British Columbia. Both pos- 
sess vast resources in gold, coal, and on agricultural 
lines. 

From these observations the reader must have ac- 
quired a pretty good idea of the vast extent of the 
north country. We have already given the boundaries 
of an area nearly as large as the whole of the United 
States, and contained within it are 1,250,000 square 
miles of the most fertile and productive park prairie 
and plain region to be found anywhere on the face of 
the earth. The elevations of this rich plain range from 



l6 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

400 to 4,000 feet above sea level, the lowest winter 
temperatures prevailing on the highest latitudes, and 
the highest temperature readings during the same sea- 
son are, of course, found in the greatest depressions. 
Most of this vast territory is favorably affected by the 
Chinook winds which find their way through all the 
passes of the Rockies north of the 53d parallel, and 
especially into the Peace River country, greatly im- 
proving the winter climate. The cold is very great in 
the southwestern portions of this plain where the 
elevations are from 2,500 to 4,000 feet, and the cattle 
on the ranches in that neighborhood have to be well 
sheltered during most of the winter. But in the far 
north, in the neighborhood of Lake Athabasca, and 
still farther north to Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie 
River, which is only 750 feet above the level of the sea, 
sunshine snow-storms are common and the snow melts 
almost as fast as it falls. In this region cattle may 
roam at large, winter and summer, without shelter of 
any kind. The hay cures on the stem and the pastur- 
age is better in December, January and February than 
during any other months of the year. But of the cli- 
mate and resources of this vast north country, we 
shall speak more in detail hereafter. 



TRADING POSTS OF THE NORTH. 17 



CHAPTER III. 
TRADING POSTS OP THE NORTH. 

Trails across the continent in the sub-Arctic belt — Many 
that have been traveled for a hundred and fifty years- 
Short cut to the gold fields of the Klondike from Ed- 
monton via Lake Athabaska and the Upper Mackenzie — 
The quicker and cheaper route — Lis of Northern trad- 
ing stations— Hints on map study. 

It is already well understood by the reader that the 
object of this volume is to provide an accurate account 
of the vast extent of territory and rich resources of the 
Golden North. The foregoing chapters shed some 
light upon the vast area and physical features of the 
country. It may now be observed that there is an im- 
portant sense in which this whole North Land has 
been settled, though not to any extent developed, dur- 
ing a period reaching back to the middle, and beyond 
it, of the eighteenth century. There is a chain of trad- 
ing posts belonging to the Hudson's Bay Company 
extending from the Atlantic to the eastern borders of 
Alaska, and covering the whole belt of territory lying 
between the 55th parallel and the Arctic Circle; and 
in Alaska, covering the whole of that territory, there 
are similar trading posts under the control of Ameri- 
can companies. 

For more than one hundred and fifty years these 
trading stations have been supplied from three points, 
namely : Fort Garry, near the mouth of the Red River, 
York Factory, and Fort Churchill on the western 
shores of Hudson's Bay. Supplies for the trading 
posts in Alaska have for many years been distributed 
from St. Michaels by way of the Yukon and from Sitka 
for those in the Southern Alaskan district. From the 
points named the products of the northern region have 
2 



1 8 THE GOLDEN NORTH, 

been shipped to foreign markets. These products 
formerly consisted of valuable furs, reindeer tongues, 
oil from the marine mammals, ivory from the walrus, 
fish, and other commodities. At one time this trade 
was carried on very extensively, but of late years it 
has dwindled away, in some portions of the north, to 
almost nothing. A little over thirty years ago the 
Hudson's Bay Company sold its interests in the North 
country to the Canadian Government, reserving cer- 
tain portions of the lands, and it has since that time be- 
come quite as much interested in the colonization and 
development of the country — in order to realize from 
its landed interests — as it is in the fur trade. 

The Hudson's Bay Company still maintains about 
one hundred and seventy-five trading posts in the belt 
mentioned, and it is interesting to note that there are 
trails, well known to Indian and Esquimo runners, 
and hunters, and to the Hudson's Bay trading post 
officials, leading from one to another of these little 
marts of trade, throughout the entire region. For in- 
stance : One may leave Fort Churchill on the western 
shore of Hudson's Bay and travel by way of Reindeer 
Lake up the Churchill, across to Lake Athabasca, 
thence to Great Slave Lake, down the Mackenzie 
River to Fort Simpson, across the country through 
one of the passes of the Rockies to the head waters of 
the Yukon, and down that river to St. Michaels, over 
a route which has been known and traveled more than 
a century and a half. Again, one may leave Edmon- 
ton, on the north branch of the Saskatchewan River, 
at the most northern extension of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway, and follow a well known trail across the 
height of land, thence to Athabasca River, and across 
it to the south shores of Little Slave Lake, thence 
northwestward to Landing at the confluence of the 
Smoky and Peace rivers, thence by way of the Peace 
River, the Pine River pass, and down the Skeena to 
Port Simpson on the Pacific coast; or, from the con- 
fluence of the Peace and Smoky rivers, northwest- 



TRADING POSTS OF THE NORTH. 19 

ward to the upper Mackenzie and across it through 
any of the convenient passes of the lower Rocky Moun- 
tain ranges of the far north to the Klondike country, 
and in all of these journeys he will follow trails which 
have been well known and constantly traveled for more 
than a century. 

By the way, it is the belief of many who have trav- 
eled extensively in the far northwest country, that the 
better and less expensive way of reaching the gold 
fields of the upper Yukon and Mackenzie rivers is to 
go by rail to Edmonton, and thence along one of the 
trails leading overland to any of the mountain passes 
which extend across the plateau from the southwest 
branches of the Mackenzie to the southeast tributa- 
ries of the Yukon, of which the Klondike is one. Cer- 
tainly this route can be covered in as short a time as 
either that by Juneau or the Yukon, while on the other 
hand, the expense of transporting supplies will not be 
nearly as great as by any of the Pacific routes. 

The Hudson's Bay trading posts of the whole North 
country, including the trading stations of Alaska, con- 
stitute an important feature of that region. The trav- 
eler in any of the overland routes always journeys from 
one trading post to another and follows a well defined 
trail. He may not always be able to purchase sup- 
plies at these stations in large quantities, but the posts 
are generally pretty well stocked, and those in charge 
of them are noted for liberality in extending relief and 
shelter and assistance to persons going through the 
country. Our knowledge of the North is largely due 
to the existence of these trading stations, and to the 
information carried to them by Indian and Esquimo 
hunters and traders. 

It will be an interesting and instructive exercise for 
the reader to lay before him a reliable map of the North 
country and to locate thereon the following list of 
Hudson's Bay trading posts, which comprise all, ex- 
cept temporary winter stations, from the Atlantic to 
Rampart House, located just above the Arctic circle 



20 



THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



near the international boundary line between the Cana- 
dian northwest and Alaska: 



Fort Chippewayan. 
Fort McMurray. 
Fond du Lac. 
Red River. 
Fort Vermillion. 
Fort Smith. 
Fort Resolution. 
Fort Dunvegan. 
Fort St. John's. 
Hudson's Hope. 
Battle River. 
Lesser Slave Lake. 
Whitefish Lake. 
Grand Prairie. 
Fort Simpson. 
Rampart House. 
Lapierre's House. 
Wabigoon. 
Whitefish Bay. 
White Dog (Lake Win- 
nipeg). 
Trout Lake. 
Seine River. 
North-West Angle. 
Norway House. 
Nelson River. 
Behrens River. 
Grand Rapid. 
Poplar River. 
Oxford House. 
Island Lake. 
York Factory. 
Severn. 

Trout Lake (Keewatin). 
Churchill. 
Winnipeg. 



Lower Fort Garry. 

Doghead. 

Fort Alexander. 

Indian Settlement. 

Portage la Prairie. 

Isle a la Crosse. 

Portage la Loche. 

Green Lake(English River). 

Souris River. 

Cumberland House. 

Moose Lake. 

Pas. 

Pelican Narrows. 

Lac du Brochets. 

Rapid River. 

Grand Rapids. 

Calgary. 

Edmonton. 

Lac la Biche. 

Jasper House. 

Lac Ste. Anne's. 

Victoria. 

Battle River. 

Peel's River. 

Fort Good Hope. 

Fort Liard. 

Fort Nelson. 

Fort Providence. 

Fort Rae. 

Fort Norman. 

Nut Lake. 

Manitoba House. 

P'airford. 

W T aterhen River. 

Shoal River. 

Duck Bay. 



TRADING POSTS OF THE NORTH. 



21 



Rat Portage. 
Fort Frances. 
Lac Seul. 
Eagle Lake. 
Prince Albert. 
Carleton House. 
Battleford. 
South Branch. 
Fort Pitt. 
Turtle Lake. 
Fort a la Corne. 
Frog Lake. 
Fort Qu'Appelle. 
Fort Ellice. 
Riding Mountain. 
Fort Pelly. 
Russell. 

Touchwood Hills. 
Egg Lake. 
Cariboo. 
Barkerville. 
Quesnel. 
New Caledonia. 
Stuart's Lake. 
Skeena. 
Fraser's Lake. 
Babine. 

Conolly's Lake. 
Fort George. 
McLeod's Lake. 
Montreal. 
Michipicoten. 
Aquawah River. 
Pic. 

Nepigon House. 
Long Lake. 
Red Rock. 
Lake Missanabie. 
Sand Lake. 



Pine Portage. 

La Cloche. 

Whitefish Lake (Huron). 

Mississaque. 

Green Lake (Huron). 

Wahnapitaeping. 

Pagamasing. 

Mattawa. 

Temiscaminque. 

Hunter's Lodge. 

Grand Lake. 

Barriere. 

Trout Lake. 

Totogan. 

Pembina. 

Oak Point. 

Moose Factory. 

Albany. 

Henley. 

English River. 

Marten's Falls. 

Osnaburgh. 

Rupert's House. 

Woswonaby. 

Mechiskim. 

Mustassing. 

Nichequon. 

Eastmain. 

Fort George. 

Great Whale River. 

Little Whale River. 

Fort Trial. 

Long Portage. 

Kinoqumisse. 

Matawagaminque. 

Natachewan. 

New Brunswick. 

Victoria. 

Massett. 



22 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Hazelton. Manoman. 

Fort Langley. Pointe Blin. 

Fort Hope. Bersamis. 

Fort Yale. Seven Islands. 

Kamloops. Moisie. 

Thompson's River. Mungan. 

Temagiminque. Musquarro. 

Nepissinque. Rigolet. 

Abittibi. North-West River. 

Winawaya. Davis Inlet. 

Weymoutachinque. Nachoak. 

Coocache. Fort Chimo. 

Kickendach. George's River. 

One may obtain a vast deal of information as to the 
character and extent of the country from a carefully 
prepared map, but in the matter of distances there are 
some lessons in mathematical geography with which 
the reader should be familiar before beginning his map 
studies. One is always inclined to measure distances 
upon a spherical map by the degrees of latitude and 
longitude marked thereon. This, however, will prove 
a very misleading procedure unless the map student 
is sufficiently acquainted with the decrease in the 
length of the degrees of longitude on different paral- 
lels of latitude. For instance: the length of a degree 
of longitude on the equator is 69.16 statute miles, 
whereas, a degree of longitude in latitude 42 is 51.47 
statute miles. Again, a degree of longitude on the 
60th parallel is but 34.67 statute miles, and a degree of 
longitude on the 82nd parallel of latitude is but 9.66 
statute miles. 

The question of distances is deeply involved in a 
study of the great North, and for the benefit of the 
reader and student of this volume the following table 
of lengths, in common land or statute miles of 5,280 
feet each, of a degree of longitude in the different lati- 
tudes north of the equator is here presented: 



TRADING POSTS OF THE 4 NOKTH. 23 

Deg. of Lat. Stat. Miles. Deg. of Lat. Stat. Miles 

o 69.16 42 51.47 

2 69.12 44 49.83 

4 68:99 46 48.12 

6 68.78 48 46.36 

8 68.49 50 44-54 

10 68.12 52 42.67 

12 67.66 54 40.74 

14. • 67.12 56 38.76 

16 66.50 58 36.74 

18 65.80 60 34.67 

20 65.02 62 32.55 

22 64.15 64 30.40 

24 63.21 66 28.21 

26 '. 62.20 68 25.98 

28 61. 11 70 23.72 

30 59-94 72 21.43 

32 58.70 74 19-12 

34 57-35 76 16.78 

36 56.01 78 14.42 

38 54-56" 80 12.05 

40 53-05 82 9.66 

The above table will be useful to those who attempt 
to determine east and west distances on a map from 
the meridian lines of longitude. Of course the de- 
grees of latitude are always of the same length no mat- 
ter on what part of the earth's surface the parallels are 
drawn. 



24 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE YUKON DISTRICT— ALASKA. 

From Bering Sea to the junction of the Pelly and Lewis 
rivers — Cereal, vegetable and stock capabilities — The 
forests and climate — Value of the white spruce. 

From the foregoing general observations on the 
North country, the reader is now prepared to take up 
the several physical divisions mentioned and to study 
them more carefully as to character, climate, eleva- 
tions and resources. 

First, as to Alaska and that portion of the Canadian 
Northwest north of the 6oth parallel and east of the 
great watershed dividing the Yukon and Mackenzie 
River systems. This interesting stretch of country 
comprises about 1,500,000 square miles and is physi- 
cally divided into three principal districts. These may 
be called the Yukon territory, the Aleutian district and 
the Sitkan district. The first, which is the more north- 
ern territory, is bounded on the south by the Alaskan 
Mountains, on the east by the Rocky Mountains and 
by the 60th parallel, which is the northern boundary 
of British Columbia ; on the north by the Arctic Ocean 
and on the west by Bering Sea and Strait. 

The Yukon River proper extends through this ter- 
ritory from Bering Sea to the confluence of the Pelly 
and Lewis rivers, which is about one hundred and 
fifty miles east of the international boundary line, and 
about 1,750 miles from its mouth. The Pelly and 
Lewis rivers, their many tributaries, and the hundreds 
of creeks and gulches which drain the mountain re- 
gion into these tributary streams, throughout this im- 
mense gold-bearing territory, reach out over 500 miles 
further to the east from their junction, and cover over 
400 miles of territory north and south. 



THE YUKON DISTRICT— ALASKA. 2$ 

The character of the country of the Yukon district 
proper varies from low, rolling and somewhat rocky 
hills, usually quite easy of ascent, to broad and some- 
times marshy plains, extending for many miles on 
either side of the river, especially for about ioo or 200 
miles from the coast. There are no roads leading 
from the mountains and uplands down to this great 
river, and but few well denned trails. In fact, the 
river itself and its tributary streams constitute the 
highways of the country. 

The rocks along the Yukon River and in the whole 
Yukon district below the junction of the Pelly and 
Lewis rivers, consist for the most part of conglomer- 
ate, sienite, quartzite and sandstone. From the con- 
fluence of the two last named rivers to the Rockies, 
quartzite prevails. This formation and the sands, 
gravel and dirt overlaying it, are generally more or 
less auriferous, or gold-bearing. 

Over a very large extent of this country, except 
upon the summits of the higher elevations, the soil is a 
rich alluvial, composed of very fine sand, mud and 
vegetable matter, brought down by the river and form- 
ing deposits of a considerable depth. 

During the winter seasons frost penetrates the soil 
to the depth of from two to six feet, and in the ma- 
jority of situations it does not more than half thaw 
out during the summer months. This, however, is due 
to the want of sufficient drainage, combined with the 
non-conductive covering of moss which prevents the 
hot sun of midsummer from warming the surface to 
any considerable depth. In locations where the soil 
is not covered with this moss, and where the drainage 
is good, as in the extensive areas near the mouth of 
the river, frost is generally thawed out of the ground 
completely during the warm season. 

It must not be supposed, however, that a layer of 

frozen ground below the surface, say two or three feet 

thick, is destructive to cereal or vegetable growth. As 

a matter of experience in Manitoba and the Canadian 

3 



26 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Northwest, east of the Rockies, such has been found 
to facilitate the growth and ripening development of 
cereals. 

There are along the banks of the Yukon, in the 
neighborhood of Escholtz Bay, bluffs or banks of ap- 
parently solid ice fronting the water. These continu- 
ous banks of ice, strange to say, are covered with a 
heavy layer of soil and vegetable matter, where herbs 
and shrubs flourish with a luxuriance only equalled in 
latitudes more than two thousand miles to the south- 
east. 

The lesson to be learned from these facts is that 
heavy and luxuriant vegetation may exist, develop 
and ripen above a layer of frozen ground and in the 
immediate vicinity of permanent ice. Hence it is 
proper to conclude that a large extent of territory in 
Alaska, even in this Yukon district, long considered 
valueless, will yet furnish not only to the trader and 
fisherman, but also to the farmer, an abundant harvest. 

The climate of the interior of the Yukon district dif- 
fers from that of the sea coast, where the temperature 
is greatly improved by the vast body of water con- 
tained in Bering Sea, and by the many currents from 
the south bringing warm water from the Pacific, mak- 
ing the winter climate of an extensive region of the 
coast much milder than that of the interior. The sum- 
mers, however, owing to the quantity of rain and pre- 
vailing cloudy weather of the coast, are cooler and less 
inviting than those of the interior. Near the coast, the 
months of May and June are delightful, being sunny, 
warm and clear. As soon as the snow disappears, and 
even before it is gone from the summits of the foot- 
hills, an immense growth of herbage springs up very 
rapidly, and large areas, which a few days before pre- 
sented nothing but a white sheet of snow, are teeming 
with a rapidly developing vegetation, producing 
leaves, flowers and fruits in rapid succession. 

At St. Michaels, on the coast of Norton Sound, in 
latitude 63.28; at the Mission, on the Yukon River, 



THE YUKON DISTRICT— ALASKA. 2J 

150 miles from its mouth, in latitude 61.47; at Nulato, 
450 miles further up the river, in latitude 64.40; and 
at Fort Yukon, 1,200 miles from the mouth of the 
river and in latitude 66.34, the mean temperatures for 
the four seasons of the year are as follows: 

Means for St.Michaels. Mission. Nulato. Ft.Yukon 

Spring 29.3 19.62 29.3 14.22 

Summer 53.0 59.32 60.0 59.67 

Autumn 26.3 36.05 36.0 17-37 

Winter 8.6 0.95 — 14.0 — 23.80 

Year 29.3 26.48 27.8 16.92 

It must not be supposed, however, that the agri- 
cultural capabilities of Alaska are to be measured by- 
mean temperatures alone. Much depends upon the 
heat of the summer months, the duration of that sea- 
son and the length of the days of sunshine. At Fort 
Yukon the thermometer often rises, at noon, not in 
the direct rays of the sun, to 112 degrees above zero, 
and in some instances the mercury has been known to 
rise to 120. It is almost impossible to calculate the 
rapid growth of vegetation under these conditions. 
In mid-summer on the upper Yukon, the only relief 
from the intense heat, under which the vegetation at- 
tains an almost tropical luxuriance, is the brief space . 
during which the sun hovers just under the northern 
horizon. 

The annual rainfall of this district is quite large, but 
not excessive, while the snowfall for November to the 
end of April will average from three to six feet and 
sometimes eight feet, although in the district of the 
upper Yukon, or territory drained by the Pelly and 
Lewis rivers and their tributaries, the snowfall ranges 
from two to three and a half feet. There is very little 
snow near the coast, but in this region high winds pre- 
vail, while in the interior there is less wind. The 
whole country except in the lower valleys is well tim- 



28 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

bered, and towards spring the gullies and brush-wood 
are well filled or covered up with snow, and transpor- 
tation with dogs and sleds is easy and pleasant. The 
warm sun at noon melts the surface of the snow, which 
freezes at night and forms a hard crust, rendering 
snowshoes almost unnecessary. The rainfall is much 
greater near the coast than it is in the interior. In the 
months of May, June and part of July, it is bright de- 
lightful weather at St. Michaels, and all along the 
coast, but the remainder of the season, or for four days 
in the week, at least, it is rainy, until October, when 
the north winds set in, bringing fine weather. The 
valley of the lower Yukon is often foggy in the latter 
part of the summer, but as one ascends the river the 
climate improves, and the short summer at Fort Yu- 
kon is always dry, hot, but pleasant withal, being 
varied by occasional showers. 

The largest and most valuable tree found in the dis- 
trict is the white spruce, which abounds over the whole 
country, but is always largest in the vicinity of running 
streams. This tree attains a height of from fifty to one 
hundred feet, with a diameter at the butt of from three 
to four feet. The most common size, however, is 
thirty or forty feet high, with fourteen or eighteen 
inches at the butt. This wood is white, clear, close 
and straight-grained, easily worked, light and yet very 
tough. It is to be greatly preferred over the Oregon 
pine. For spars it has no superior. It is very dura- 
ble and many houses twenty years old, built of this 
timber, still contain a majority of sound logs. These 
trees decrease in size and grow more sparsely as one 
approaches Fort Yukon, but they are still large enough 
for many purposes. The northern limit of this tree is 
about 66.44 north latitude, and it occupies the same 
place in the physical development of the country in 
Alaska as does the tamarac on the southern and west- 
ern basins of Hudson's and James' bays. In the in- 
terior of Alaska the white spruce is found often above 
the 70th parallel, and as in the north country to the 



THE YUKON DISTRICT— ALASKA. 29 

east of the Rocky Mountains, the forests in the Yukon 
district are steadily pushing their advance towards the 
shores of the Arctic Ocean. Forests consisting most- 
ly of the spruce are abundant at Fort Yukon in lati- 
tude 66.34, and the waters of the Tananah River bring 
down the largest logs of this tree in the spring freshets. 
The number of these logs annually floated down the 
northern Alaskan rivers is almost beyond calculation. 
Freshets prevail in the rivers for about three weeks, 
and although the period of their duration is short, suffi- 
cient is brought down to supply the demand of the 
Arctic coast and Bering Sea, as well as the numerous 
islands.* 

The tree of next importance in the forests of north- 
ern Alaska is the birch, which, however, rarely grows 
over eighteen inches in diameter and forty feet in 
height. The wood of this tree is hard and tough. 
The treeless coasts of the territory, as well as the low- 
lands of the Yukon, are covered in spring with a most 
luxuriant growth of grass and flowers, including the 
well known Kentucky bluegrass, which grows luxur- 
iantly as far north as Kotzebue Sound, and, to some 
extent, at Port Barrow. The wild meadow grass is 
also abundant and furnishes good, fattening pasturage 
for cattle. The blue-joint grass also abounds, and 
sometimes grows four or five feet in height. Its av- 
erage is three feet. 

Grain has never been sown to any extent in the 
Yukon territory until within the last few years, in 
which tests have been successfully made in barley and 
other cereals. Turnips and radishes flourish, and cat- 
tle thrive, but require shelter during the long winter 
months. 

The agricultural capabilities of the Yukon territory, 
though not great, are gradually enlarging and improv- 
ing, and will be utilized to the great advantage of the 
inhabitants in the near future. 

* Capt. W. H. Doll. 



30 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

The points and posts of interest on the Yukon from 
St. Michaels to- Fort Selkirk, at the junction of the 
Pelly and Lewis rivers, are: Andreafski, Cogmute, 
Koserefski, Hamilton's Lodge, Nulato, Weare, Fort 
Yukon, and Circle City. 



; 



UPPER YUKON OK KLONDIKE REGION. 3 I 

CHAPTER y. 

UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 

Auriferous districts lying west of the Mackenzie— Terri- 
tory is duplicated in extent and gold bearing riches on 
the slopes east of the summit— Three great routes to the 
Klondike— Reasons why the all-overland route will be- 
come most favored. 

We now come to consider the most interesting sub- 
division of the whole north region, the upper Yukon 
country — the El Dorado of our hopes— that vast ex- 
tent of country stretching away from the confluence 
of the Lewis and Pelly rivers to the summit of the 
watershed of the Mackenzie River, and west of it to 
Circle City. 

This is the Klondike. 

This is the auriferous land where gold lies hidden in 
sand, dirt, gravel and quartz, in quantities sufficiently 
great to enrich half the people of this nation. 

It is a vast country too, all more or less gold-bear- 
ing, containing at least 240,000 square miles, and yel- 
low metal probably to the extent of billions of dollars 
in value. 

And let it be stated here and now that this wonder- 
ful region to the west of the watershed of the Macken- 
zie is beyond all question duplicated, both in extent 
and gold-bearing value, on the eastern slopes of the 
same watershed in the country of the southwestern 
tributaries, creeks and gulches of the upper Macken- 
zie River. Only a small corner of the Klondike 
country has yet been explored. There are hundreds 
of river branches, creeks and gulches, in that section 
yet without a name, and unknown to the hardy miner- 
pioneer. It will no doubt consume the whole of 1898 
to complete anything like a perfect exploration of this 
territory; and during the coming eighteen months the 



32 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

reader may be prepared to hear of more wonderful dis- 
coveries of gold, in both placer and quartz mines, in 
this region, than have yet been reported. Not only 
so, but the mining prospector and the gold hunter will 
either cross the watershed of the Mackenzie, and de- 
velop the rich gold fields of the more eastern district, 
or enter it overland by way of the northwest trails 
from Edmonton. The data at hand, including the 
writer's own observations in that country, fully justify 
the statement that there is just as much gold east of the 
watershed as there is west of it. This applies not only 
to the far north, but to the more southerly areas in 
northern British Columbia south of the 6oth parallel. 
This statement is supported by the natural history sur- 
vey reports of the Canadian Government as well as 
the information gained by explorers and surveyors 
sent out from time to time under the auspices of the 
Department of the Interior of the Dominion Govern- 
ment. 

The gold-bearing district on the eastern slopes of the 
Mackenzie and Yukon watershed contains an area of 
250,000 square miles, and like its neighboring district 
on the slopes west of the summit, it is not only richly 
gold-bearing, but contains inexhaustible deposits of 
silver and coal. 

It is probably idle at this time to attempt to forecast 
the future of this wonderful region, but it may be said 
that the paying gold discoveries which have already 
been made cannot possibly yield up all their treasure 
in a few months and be forgotten, nor give way to 
something more interesting in any near future. On 
the contrary, one is warranted in the belief that the five 
or ten thousand gold hunters now in that territory will 
be increased to fifty or one hundred thousand in 1898, 
and possibly to two hundred thousand before the close 
of the present century. 

The vast cereal, vegetable, stock-raising and dairy 
possibilties of the alluvial plains which lie on the one 
hand in the mighty valleys eastward of the auriferous 



34 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

slopes on this side the great watershed, and on the 
Alaskan lowlands to the west, will in a short time be 
sufficiently developed to abundantly supply all the gold, 
silver and coal diggers that may go into the mining 
districts. Hence it will not always be necessary to 
transport supplies, at the cost of two or three times 
their value, from southeastern markets, to support the 
treasure hunters of the north. The time is not far dis- 
tant when the adjacent fertile plains will produce all 
that will be necessary, and the miner will be required 
to transport from eastern markets only tools and im- 
plements necessary for the proper development of the 
diggings. 

The upper Yukon, of which we are speaking, lies 
wholly within British territory. In fact it may be di- 
vided, for convenience, from the district of the Yukon 
proper by the international boundary line, which in 
this region lies along the 141st degree of longitude, 
from the Arctic Ocean to the northern base of Mt. St. 
Elias. 

Between this international boundary line which 
crosses the Yukon where Seventy Mile Creek enters 
that stream, and at the junction of the Pelly and Lewis 
rivers, there are, in this order, from the northwest, 
Fort Cudahy, Forty Mile Post, Old Fort Reliance, 
Dawson City, and most of the mining camps now in 
active operation, including those on the Klondike and 
the creeks flowing into it. Fort Selkirk is located at 
the junction of the rivers last named, and there the 
Yukon ceases as such. This is in longitude 137.30 
west in the British Northwest territory. The Pelly 
River, starting from this point, reaches far to the west- 
ward, taking its rise in the almost innumerable creeks 
and gulches in the Rocky Mountains. The Lewis 
River reaches far away to the southeast, taking its rise 
northeast of Chilcat Pass, in a large number of long 
narrow lakes imbedded in that mountainous region. 
The head waters of both of these rivers comprise an 
undefinable and only very partially explored region 



UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 35 

of creeks and brooks. Hundreds of these are yet with- 
out names, having never been visited by white men, 
but that which is known of the district in a general 
way, as to its auriferous formation, fully justifies the 
statement, on a geological basis, that the whole coun- 
try thereabouts is about equal, one section with the 
other, as to its gold-bearing resources. Dr. Dawson, 
chief of the Natural History and Geological Survey of 
Canada; William Ogilvie, of the Geographical Survey 
of the same country, and many others have made offi- 
cial reports which justify this general statement as to 
the resources of the whole region. Dr. Dawson veri- 
fied the discoveries of coal and silver in that neighbor- 
hood, and also far to the south of it. 

Both the Pelly and Lewis are large rivers. The lat- 
ter is the best known, having been used for the past 
six years as the highway from Southern Alaska to the 
gold diggings of the Yukon in the neighborhood of 
the boundary line. Its length from Lake Lindeman, 
one of its chief sources, to its junction with the Pelly, 
is about 375 miles. As already stated, the river lies 
wholly in British territory. This applies to the great- 
er portion of the lakes which constitute its source. 
Some of these lakes, however, extend into Southern 
Alaska, to a point not far north of Dyea. 

The Pelly River takes its rise in and about Dease 
Lake, near the head waters of the Stikine River. It 
has a length of fully 500 miles before uniting with the 
Lewis to form the Yukon. The latter river at the 
junction, and for miles below, varies from three-quar- 
ters of a mile to a mile in width. For many miles 
along the northern bank there is a solid wall of lava. 
For convenience we may refer to the whole gold-bear- 
ing region west of the Rocky Mountains and down the 
Yukon to the international boundary line, and even 
beyond it, as the Klondike country. 

There are three general routes by which this new El 
Dorado may be reached. One is a all-water route by 
way of St. Michaels and along the great Yukon River, 



36 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the longest and, at present, probably the most ex- 
pensive journey. This may be called the summer 
route, for the river is not navigable during the winter 
season. The second route, and that which is now 
being most generally traveled, is by Juneau and Dyea, 
through the several passes to the Lewis River beyond 
the mountains, the principal of these being the Chilcat 
and Chilkoot passes. These passes are being rapidly 
improved, so that it is possible to make the journey, 
though with considerable hardship, during the winter 
season. The third route has not yet been traveled to 
any extent by gold hunters, but it is predicted that it 
will, in a short time, become the most favored highway 
by which the gold-bearing regions of the great North 
will be reached. It is from Edmonton, in the Cana- 
dian Northwest, by way of the Athabasca, Great Slave 
Lake and the upper Mackenzie and across the water- 
shed to the head waters of the Pelly or the McMillan, 
the latter being a northeasterly branch of the Pelly. 
One reason, and an important one, why this is likely 
to become a favored route is because of the well- 
grounded belief that gold exists in quantities equally 
as great east of the watershed, on the upper creeks and 
tributaries of the Mackenzie, as on the western slopes, 
or in the Klondike region. 

Of course the trip is one of difficulties, taxing the 
endurance and nerve of the traveler, no matter which 
route is taken. Only persons can expect to make the 
journey successfully who can endure the work of pack- 
ing supplies over the precipitous and somewhat path- 
less mountains, towing boats against strong currents, 
and sleeping anywhere night overtakes them, and in 
the summer season, fighting the veritable pestilence 
of gnats and mosquitoes. However, the climate is 
unequaled for health in both summer and winter, pro- 
vided one enjoys anything like reasonable supplies of 
the necessaries of life in that region. 

But as to transportation facilities, there will no 
doubt be great improvements within the next few 



UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 37 

months. Wagon-roads and trails will be constructed 
through the coast range mountains. More commo- 
dious steamers will be placed on lakes and rivers, pass- 
able roads will be constructed over the northwest 
route, and the whole vast upper country on both sides 
of the Rockies will be made reasonably accessible to 
all who desire to enter it. Then thousands will flock 
there. The writer Of this book, who has traveled ex- 
tensively over the region and acquired a considerable 
knowledge of its wonderful resources, predicts that in 
ten years there will be a population of over 250,000 in 
these territories. 



38 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER VI. 

UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 

(Continued.) 

Pioneers of the Klondike country— Administration of min- 
ing laws, tariff regulations and homestead entry rules 
extended to the district by the Canadian Government — 
Explorations of Dr. Dawson and Surveyor Ogilvie — In- 
crease of mining camps. 

Continuing our account of the upper Yukon or 
Klondike country, the work becomes partly historical 
and partly descriptive. We find that the first repre- 
sentatives of civilization to enter the region were the 
traders of the Hudson's Bay Company. In the year 
1840 a Mr. Campbell was sent out by Sir George Simp- 
son to explore the upper Liard, one of the branches of 
the Mackenzie River, and to- cross the watershed in 
search of any rivers flowing to the westward. After 
ascending the river to its head waters, he had no diffi- 
culty in crossing one of the many convenient passes of 
the Rocky Mountain range to the head waters of the 
Pelly River. Thence he descended the Pelly to the 
confluence of the Lewis. From this point he returned, 
his men having become discouraged by reports of the 
hostile character of the Wood Indians encamped near 
there. From these reports he represented that the 
lower portion of the river was inhabited by a large 
tribe of cannibals. In 1847 Fort Yukon was estab- 
lished at the mouth of the Porcupine River on the 
northern banks of the Yukon by A. H. Murray, another 
representative of the Hudson's Bay Company. It was 
in 1848 that Campbell established Fort Selkirk at the 
junction of the Pelly and Lewis rivers. This fort was 
plundered and destroyed four years later by the coast 
Indians. At present only its ruins remain. It was at 



UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 39 

one time one of the most important trading posts of 
the Hudson's Bay Company west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. 

Coming down to more recent dates, it will be re- 
membered that in 1869, two years after Alaska was 
acquired by the United States Government, the Hud- 
son's Bay Company's officers and traders were ex- 
pelled from Fort Yukon by our Government, it having 
been determined by astronomical observations that 
the post was located within United States territory. 
At this time the Hudson's Bay Company's representa- 
tives left Fort Yukon, ascended the Porcupine River 
to a point which they believed to be within British 
jurisdiction, where they established Rampart House; 
but as ill-luck would have it, the international bound- 
ary line was further determined in 1890, and the new- 
trading station was found to be twenty miles within 
Uncle Sam's domain. Therefore, in 1891, the post 
was moved twenty miles farther up the river, where it 
was located on British territory. 

According to the best information at hand, the next 
people to enter the Klondike country were Harper and 
McQuestion. They established several trading posts, 
most of which they afterwards abandoned; later Mr. 
Harper located as a trader at Fort Selkirk, and Mr. 
McQuestion entered the employ of the Alaska Com- 
mercial Company at Circle City, which is a distribut- 
ing point for a vast region of territory. 

In 1882 quite a number of miners entered the Yu- 
kon country by the Taiya Pass, which was then the 
best and most traveled route. It is still largely used, 
and is said to be shorter than any of the other passes, 
though it is by no means the lowest. It will be re- 
membered that in 1883 Lieut. Schwatka went into the 
Yukon country through this pass, and descended the 
Lewis and Yukon rivers to Bering Sea. In 1887 the 
Canadian Government fitted out an expedition, hav- 
ing for its object the exploration of the far northwest 
territory of Canada, which is drained by the Pelly and 



40 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Lewis rivers. This expedition was entrusted to Dr. 
George M. Dawson, then, as now, the chief director 
of the Geological and Natural History Survey of the 
Canadian Dominion. His chief assistant in the work 
was Dominion Land Surveyor William Ogilvie, from 
whose pen the people of this country have had the 
most recent official information regarding the gold 
fields of the Klondike country. Mr. Ogilvie, who has 
long been known in Canada as a Dominion Land Sur- 
veyor, now ranks equal with Dr. Dawson himself as an 
explorer of the far north country, especially of that 
portion of it along the northern Rocky Mountain sum- 
mit and the slopes on either side of it. Dr. Dawson 
devoted the whole of that season to exploring, locating 
and defining the lakes and rivers of the upper Yukon 
region, and Mr." Ogilvie remained in the country for 
two years gathering geological and topographical in- 
formation concerning the country lying adjacent to 
the 141st degree of longitude, which is the interna- 
tional boundary line, and the country east of it. 

This expedition found that the whole country as far 
as they traveled over it contained valuable gold mines, 
and they were surprised at meeting at least 300 min- 
ers who were at work digging and washing out the 
gold. Mr. Ogilvie, by a series of observations, de- 
termined the point at which the Yukon River is crossed 
by the international boundary line, and also that at 
which Forty Mile Creek is crossed by the same; and 
this survey proved that the place which had then been 
selected as a convenient point for the distribution of 
supplies for the various mining camps, namely, Fort 
Cudahy, which is situated where Forty Mile Creek 
enters the Yukon, was in British Canadian territory. 
Even at that date it was discovered that the greater 
proportion of the mines being worked was on the 
British side. Since that date the best paying mines 
have been discovered still further to the east, and it is 
evident, from the official and other reports at hand, 
that the further east the prospecting is conducted the 



UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 41 

greater the rewards to those engaged in that work. As 
before intimated, the reports of Dr. Dawson which 
cover a period of more than twenty years, support the 
belief that the most productive gold deposits will yet 
be found considerably to the east of the Klondike, and 
even beyond the summit of the mountains, on the east- 
ern slopes. 

The number of persons who had entered the Klon- 
dike country to engage in mining had reached over 
1,000 up to the year 1895, and the additions to that 
number between 1895 and 1896 were considerable. 
During the present year there has, of course, been a 
very large increase to the mining population. 

We learn from Canadian official reports that for 
many years subsequent to the retirement of the Hud- 
son's Bay Company from Alaska, the Alaska Commer- 
cial Company enjoyed a monopoly of the trade of the 
Yukon, carrying into the country and delivering at 
various points along the river, without regard to the 
international boundary line or to customs laws, such 
commodities and supplies as were required for the 
prosecution of the fur trade, and later on, of placer 
mining. Of course these were the only two industries 
known to the country. 

It may be noted here that with the discovery of gold 
in larger quantities, there followed the organization of 
a company to compete with the Alaska Commercial 
Company, known as the North American Transporta- 
tion and Trading Company, having its headquarters in 
Chicago, and its chief trading center at Fort Cudahy, 
on the Yukon. This company has now been engaged 
in this trade for about five years, and owns and oper- 
ates lines of steamers plying between Pacific ports and 
St. Michaels at the mouth of the Yukon, and trading 
to Juneau and Dyea in southeastern Alaska. By 
means of these steamers the Company transports mer- 
chandise to the first mentioned point, trans-shipping it 
into river steamers at the mouth of the Yukon to points 
inland, notably to Fort Cudahy at the western borders 
4 



42 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

of the Klondike country. This route has been the 
principal highway of the carrying trade of the upper 
Yukon, but more recently importations of some value 
consisting of miners' supplies and their tools have 
reached the Klondike district from Juneau by way of 
Dyea and the mountain passes to the chain of water- 
ways leading therefrom to the Lewis River, thence to 
Cudahy on the Yukon. 

Up to within a year past, although civil government 
had been fully established by the United States in all 
parts of Alaska, no governmental authority of any 
kind had been set up in any portion of the Canadian 
Northwest between the international boundary line 
and the Rocky Mountains north of the 6oth parallel. 
As a result importations of considerable value were 
taken into the country without the payment of duty, 
except that, in 1894, the North American Transporta- 
tion and Trading Company paid customs charges on 
the merchandise which it carried into the country, to 
the amount of $3,240. Recently, how r ever, the Cana- 
dian Government has extended its administration, 
both as to the collecting of customs and the enforcing 
of. mining regulations and homestead laws in that ter- 
ritory. The officials sent out there to administer these 
branches of the Canadian Government are now backed 
up by a considerable force of the Canadian Northwest 
mounted police. As a result, customs duties are being 
collected on merchandise taken across the international 
boundary line, the Canadian mining laws are being en- 
forced, and the door has been opened for the settle- 
ment of Canadian lands under the free entry system, 
as fast as they can be surveyed into townships and 
sections for that purpose. The miners have made 
some complaints as to the alleged excessive customs 
charges by the Canadian officials, but in the main, 
those who have gone into the country, and those con- 
templating going, will appreciate the value of the fact 
that the Canadian Government has taken ample steps 
for the enforcement of law, maintenance of order and 



UPPER YUKON OR KLONDIKE REGION. 43 

the administration of justice in the upper Yukon ter- 
ritory. Without this step the placer mining of gold, 
which is now being carried forward on an extensive 
scale east of the international boundary, would be at- 
tended with great danger and much insecurity. It was 
clearly in the interests of humanity, and absolutely 
necessary for the security and safety of the lives and 
property of the citizens of the United States as well as 
of Canadian subjects. 

The exploration and surveys made by Dr. Dawson 
and Mr. Ogilvie in the upper Yukon region in 1887 
and the years immediately following are among the 
most important official documents describing the 
topography and resources of that country, and form 
the basis of nearly everything that has been printed 
concerning it since. Mr. Ogilvie returned to the north- 
west and continued his explorations and surveys, of 
which we have printed accounts as late as the latter 
part of January of the present year. Some of his let- 
ters to the Canadian Minister of the Interior, dated in 
the latter part of 1896 and the early portion of the 
present year, give almost sensational accounts of gold 
discoveries in the Klondike. This fully substantiates 
the unofficial reports which have come from the miners 
themselves by way of letters to friends in different parts 
of this country. 



44 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE ALEUTIAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 

A mountainous and volcanic country — Broad meadows and 
sloping hillsides capable of cereal and stock-raising 
development — A mountainous country— Altitude limit 
of vegetation. 

Before proceeding to further details concerning the 
gold regions of the great north country, let us turn 
aside to glance at the interesting features of the' other 
physical divisions of Alaska. This step leads us to the 
Aleutian district, which comprises the Aleutian Islands 
and part of the Peninsula of Alaska. Owing to the 
presence of trees, the Island of Kadiak and those ad- 
jacent belong rather to the Sitkan division. 

These islands contain many high mountains, some 
of them volcanic, a few still showing activity by emit- 
ting smoke and steam. Between them and the sea are 
extensive rolling hills and meadows. Much of the soil 
is rich, consisting of vegetable mold and dark-colored 
clays, with here and there light loam formed of de- 
composed rocks and rich in tertiary fossils. In many 
parts of these meadows the drainage is insufficient, but 
may be improved at little cost. In some places the 
soil is composed of decayed volcanic products, but 
much of this is rich and productive. 

From the evidence at hand one is warranted in the 
statement that vast areas of this soil will produce 
cereals and vegetables. The mercury ranges from zero 
to 75 above. The following statistics will show the 
range of the thermometer, by means, for four years 
within the last decade, although there are readings at 
hand extending as far back as 1830: 



THE ALEUTIAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 45 



7 A.M. 


1 P.M. 


9 P.M. 


Ex. Heat. 


Ex. Cold 


35 


38 


34 


77 


Zero. 


36 


40 


34 


64 


7 


39 


42 


38 


77 


7 


38 


4i 


36 


76 


5 



The average for the four years is 37 above at 7 A. M. ; 
40.5 above at 1 P. M. ; 36 above at 9 P. M. The aver- 
age extreme heat for the four years is yy above, and 
the extreme cold for the same period is zero. 

The average weather statistics for seven years out of 
the last ten is as follows: January, 11 all-clear days; 
in half-clear days ; 95 all-cloudy days ; February, 9 all- 
clear days, 86 half-clear days, and 103 all-cloudy days; 
March, 3 all-clear days, 112 half-clear days, 102 all- 
cloudy days; April, 4 all-clear days, 104 half-clear days, 
102 all-cloudy days; May, 2 all-clear days, 105 half- 
clear days, and 104 all-cloudy days; June, 6 all-clear 
days, 118 half-clear days, 99 all-cloudy days; July, no 
all-clear days, 118 half-clear days, and 99 all-cloudy 
days; August, 5 all-clear days, 106 half-clear days, 106 
all-cloudy days; September, 2 all-clear days, 107 half- 
clear days, 100 all-cloudy days; October, 2 all-clear 
days, 115 half-clear davs. t^o Pi!-cloudv days; Novem- 
ber, 3 all-clear days, 88 half-clear days, 119 all-cloudy 
days; December, 6 all-clear days, 116 half-clear days, 
95 all-cloudy days. The total for the seven years 
records 53 all-clear days, 1,263 half-clear days, and 
1,235 all-cloudy days. 

It will be seen that there is a great proportion of 
cloudy and half-cloudy weather in this district. The 
average number of rainy days for seven years in this 
district is 150, but it will be seen that the precipitation 
is light, as during that whole period the rainfall meas- 
ured but 45 inches. This is about the average for the 
whole district in question. 

There is no timber of any kind on the islands except 
shrub, but the grasses in this climate — 'which is warmer 
than that of the Yukon district, and drier than that of 



46 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the Sitkan — attain almost an incredible luxuriance. 
For example, Unalaska, in the vicinity of Captain's 
Harbor, abounds in fertile meadows, with a climate 
better adapted for haying than many districts 2,000 
miles southeast of it. Here and in this vicinity cattle 
may be raised by the hundreds of thousands, without 
trouble or any considerable expense. They become 
remarkably fat, and the beef is tender and delicate, 
rarely surpassed by any stock-fed beef. The milk is 
of excellent quality and dairy products may be easily 
made profitable in this quarter. 

It may be noted that the best and most available 
arable lands lie near the coast, formed by the debris 
of the mountains and valleys mingling with the sea 
sands, which together form a remarkably rich soil, 
excellently adapted for cereal and vegetable culture. 
These things, considered together with the extra- 
ordinarily favorable climate, warrant the statement 
that these broad meadows and sloping, sunny hill- 
sides, will produce good crops under the thrifty hand 
of enterprise, while on the rolling meadows stock rais- 
ing and dairying may be carried on with great profit. 

The broad areas are all cleared for the plow, and 
cultivation may proceed as on the prairies of any of 
the northwestern states. Many of the grasses found on 
these meadows are cereal-like, and their nature leads 
one to infer that oats and barley will thrive and ripen 
in this quarter excellently. The great length of the 
days and the many hours of sunshine during the 
summer months, as compared with the districts thou- 
sands of miles to the southeast, go very far to warrant 
the belief that the climate is capable of producing al- 
most all kinds of cereals, though the early heavy frosts 
may somewhat interfere with ripening wheat harvests. 

From the best information obtainable from Russian 
traders, and others, it may be said that potatoes may 
be cultivated on almost all the Aleutian Islands, and 
upon the rolling meadows and sloping hillsides of the 
mainland. At False Pass, or Isanotski Strait, potatoes 



THE ALEUTIAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 47 

have been raised and the seed preserved for planting 
from year to year. The products of the islands to the 
westward of this district are about the same as those of 
Unalaska. Turnips grow very large in size, and are 
excellent in quality. In this district vegetation ceases 
about 2,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is im- 
possible, from the data at hand, to estimate the extent 
of the productive areas of the Aleutian territory, but 
they are sufficiently great to support a considerable 
population. 



48 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SITKAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 

Channels, natural canals, rivers and lakes — The water high- 
ways of the country— Great timber resources of South- 
ern Alaska — Wild berries abundant — Pest of mosqui- 
toes and flies — Stock and agriculture. 

As we have defined it, from physical features, the 
Sitkan district of Alaska includes the mainland and 
the islands from the southern boundary of the penin- 
sula, and also Kadiak and the adjacent islands. The 
surface of this part of the country is rugged and 
mountainous in the extreme. It is only in the northern 
portion that one meets with arable lands that are level 
and adapted to cultivation. Small patches are found 
in the southern portion, here and there, but not ex- 
tensive enough for any but very small farms. As a 
rule the mountains descend precipitously into the sea, 
with their steep sides covered with dense and almost 
impenetrable forests, and their summits, in many cases, 
crowned with eternal snow and ice. 

Channels and natural canals constitute the high- 
ways of the country, and these are so numerous and 
intricate, and penetrate the region so completely, that 
they afford means of communication with all sections. 
The elevations average about 1,500 feet above these 
channels. Here and there a wide, glittering, mammoth 
glacier stands out picturesquely in some ravine, con- 
trasting strangely with the dense foliage on either side 
of it. 

The soil is principally alluvial, with substrata of 
gravel and clay. That of Cook's Inlet and Kadiak is 
of the same character, but from a mixture of volcanic 
sand, and an underlying of limestone stratum, it is 
lighter and drier and better adapted for cultivation. 



SITKAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 49 

In the southern part of this district there is little 
beside timber, from an agricultural point of view. At 
Sitka a considerable variety of vegetables do fairly well. 
Turnips, beans, peas, carrots, beets, lettuce and rad- 
ishes flourish. Potatoes are small and do not reach a 
healthy maturity. This is owing to the excessive 
moisture. Cabbages grow luxuriantly, but do not head 
properly. Cereals are not successful to any extent in 
this locality. Cattle, however, may be successfully 
kept, and the dairy product is excellent. Kadiak and 
Cook's Inlet, northeast of Fort Alexander, have, com- 
paratively, colder winters and drier and warmer sum- 
mers than the islands and coasts to the south. Here 
haying can be successfully carried on. The native 
grasses are good for fodder, whether cut and cured, or 
on the stem. Barley and oats have been successfully 
raised in this neighborhood, and the evidence we have 
indicates that cereals may be raised with considerable 
profit. 

There is an abundance of wood in this neighbor- 
hood, but it is not to be found on the lowlands, which 
for the greater part are bare of both brush and trees. 
The summer climate in the neighborhood of Cook's 
Inlet and Kadiak, unlike that of Sitka, furnishes an 
excellent haying season. There are broad valleys from 
which an extensive supply of hay, consisting of native 
grasses, can be annually secured, and this industry 
may be developed to almost any extent. The cattle 
existing here are fat and healthy, and the milk is 
abundant. The butter is yellow and remarkably rich. 
Potatoes do well in this neighborhood — much better 
than at Sitka, but do not grow very large. Cattle were 
first brought to this district by the Russian-American 
Company, and have been maintained there ever since 
in a thriving condition. It may be said, therefore, that 
the stock-raising capabilities, and the possibilities of 
dairy products in Alaska are more than sufficient for 
the needs of any population that is likely ever to in- 
habit the country. At present, however, the great 



50 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

agricultural staple of the southern Sitkan district is 
timber. Yellow cedar is the finest tree of these forests, 
and the most profitable wood of the Pacific coast. The 
next in order is the Sitka spruce, or white pine, which 
is well known in the lumber trade of the coast. Like 
the yellow cedar, it attains a large size, and is remark- 
able for its straight and beautifully tapering trunk. 
This wood is not as durable as yellow cedar, but is 
valuable for many purposes. Hemlock also abounds 
in many sections. So does the balsam fir, and a con- 
siderable variety of less noteworthy trees. In Kadiak 
the growth of timber is confined to the eastern valleys 
and slopes of the islands, but it is gradually extending 
all over its surface, except upon the highest summits. 
The largest sized trees seen there are three feet in 
diameter and 90 to 100 feet in height. The wooded 
districts comprise the whole of the Alexandrian Archi- 
pelago, and the mainland of the North Lituya Bay. 
From this point to Prince William's Sound the coun- 
try is fairly well timbered. 

And now, speaking of the physical features of 
Alaska, as a whole, it is not so large a country in area 
as some suppose. It contains, in the aggregate, a little 
less than 600,000 square miles, and is pre-eminently a 
land of mountains, streams, and lakes. It may be said 
that, while the Yukon territory does not present ex- 
tended agricultural resources, its stock-raising capabil- 
ities, provided cattle have good winter shelter, are con- 
siderable. Nevertheless the future settlers of that vast 
country may have an abundance of milk, butter, fresh 
beef and fresh vegetables, if they use the skill and do 
the work necessary to produce them. During the sum- 
mer months cattle may roam and fatten on the mead- 
ows and slopes and hillsides, and ample fodder, con- 
sisting of the perennial grasses, may be gathered for 
their winter supplies. 

In the Aleutian district, of course, the greatest ex- 
tent of arable land is found. In the northern part of 
the Sitkan territory the climate is most favorable for 



SITKAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 5 1 

agriculture and stock-raising. Indeed, the capabilities 
of this district and the islands mentioned are much 
better than have heretofore been reported. Oats and 
barley, wheat and rye, and a very wide range of vege- 
tables will succeed well on these islands. There is 
now no doubt of the great stock-raising capabilities of 
this section of the country. Sheep, goats and swine 
may do well, but of this experiments have not yet fur- 
nished us any reliable information. 

A great variety of berries abound in unlimited quan- 
tities, both in the Yukon and Aleutian territories, and 
in the northern Sitkan district. It is believed that fruit 
trees may be successfully cultivated in the drier sec- 
tions of the territory mentioned. 

The soil product of the southern Sitkan district con- 
sists entirely in timber. No better lumber district can 
well be imagined, and it is interlaced everywhere with 
means of water transportation. The mountain sides 
are so steep that slides for delivering the timber to the 
watercourses can easily be made. Once afloat, it is 
readily formed into rafts and towed to mill or market, 
as may be desired. 

One of the most remarkable characteristics of Alaska 
is the network of rivers and lakes and channels that 
intersect its surface, and that offers a most available 
means of transportation. In fact, land travel is almost 
impossible in many parts of the territory. Only the 
savages travel by land. The whites go by water almost 
exclusively, except where they are forced to use con- 
venient passes and portages in making the distances 
between the rivers and lakes. In the more northern 
regions — between the mountain ranges — are vast areas 
of meadows, sloping uplands and bogs, and these are 
dotted with thousands of lakes, large and small, 
and threaded in all directions by innumerable rivers 
and channels. 

Beginning at the south the Sitkine is the first stream 
of large size. This river has become well known on 
account of the gold diggings on its banks, all of which, 



52 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

however, are in British territory. It is over 250 miles 
in length and is navigable only by small boats, except 
during the spring freshets. The north fork, about 40 
miles long, rises on the east of Bald Mountain, near 
the headwaters of the Yukon. A small stream called 
the Taku flows into a glacier arm of St. Stephen's 
Strait. Chilkoot, a much larger river, enters the north- 
ern extremity of Lynn channel, its general direction 
being from the north. From its upper waters one 
passes through the Chilkoot Pass, and by means of 
lakes and rivers and portages, reaches Lewis River, 
one of the great tributaries of the Yukon. 

The Yukon can be reached from Norton sound by 
way of Unalakeik and Antrokakat rivers, or by way 
of the Kaltag. The latter is the usual route from St. 
Michaels. The Yukon River also connects by way of 
the Koynkuk with Kotzebue Sound; and it is now 
well known that there are routes of travel between the 
north tributaries of the Yukon or the Noatak, and 
many of the rivers that empty into the Arctic Ocean. 

The Yukon is a mighty river, larger than the Mis- 
sissippi, and empties about one-third more water into 
Bering Sea every hour than does the Father of 
Waters into the Gulf of Mexico. The sea is very shal- 
low at the mouth of this river, varying in depth from 
two to three fathoms for 50 miles out. It is a mourn- 
ful, desolate country to the traveler, and as he ascends 
the mighty stream there are vast areas on either side 
of low, boggy country, covered everywhere with a 
mountainous cloak of willows and rank grasses. 
Wherever the banks raise to any considerable height 
they are being constantly undermined and washed 
away by the floods. So precipitate are the landslides 
caused in this way, that at times travelers are fortunate 
to escape with their lives. This is the general charac- 
ter of the country until Kusilvak is reached, and until 
the bluffs at Andriewsky and Chatinakh give evidence 
that all the land of Alaska is not under water. 

The Yukon impresses one as a vast inland sea with 



SITKAN DISTRICT— ALASKA. 53 

expansive, water-charged, boggy areas on either side 
as far up as 700 or 800 miles above its mouth. There 
are many points at which this river extends to a 
breadth of 20 miles from shore to shore, even as high 
up as 800 miles above St. Michaels. For over 2,000 
miles, or up to a considerable distance above the 
junction of the Lewis and the Pelly, the river is navi- 
gable for flat-bottomed steamers, of say 500 tons each. 
White River, a portion of whose waters flow through 
Alaskan territory, empties into the Yukon on the 
British side. Forty Mile Creek, and Birch and Beaver 
creeks join the river between Fort Yukon and Daw- 
son City. During the summer months the whole pop- 
ulation, native and civilized, excepting, of course, the 
miners, flock to the many rivers and lakes, attracted 
by the myriads of salmon, which they catch, dry and 
cure for the winter's stock of food. During this season 
the banks of the river are lined with the camps of the 
fishermen, who project their basket traps far out into 
the eddies of the streams. 

One of the natural features of Alaska amounts to a 
veritable pestilence. . This consists of the clouds of 
bloodthirsty mosquitoes, and poisonous black flies. 
Swarms of these pests fairly darken the sky, and often 
render life miserable to the traveler, who is obliged to 
cover his face even in the hottest weather in order to 
shield himself from his tormentors. They infest the 
country from May to September. They breed in the 
vast network of slough and swamp. Perhaps the most 
discouraging feature of the whole country is presented 
in a truthful report of this almost intolerable infliction. 
The way they swarm in rear and front, and on every 
side, and the torture they inflict on the explorers, is 
beyond all adequate description. The traveler who ex- 
poses his face will very soon lose his natural appear- 
ance. From their stings and bites the eyelids swell up 
and close, and the face becomes one mass of lumps 
and fiery pimples. 

The glaciers, and other ice phenomena of Alaska, 



54 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

will be considered in connection with the entire glacier 
regions of the great north country, and, with these ex- 
ceptions, we shall now bid adieu to Alaska so far as 
its physical features and agricultural and stock-raising 
capabilities are concerned, and turn our attention once 
more to the Golden North, lying east of the interna- 
tional boundary line. We shall return to Alaska later, 
however, to study its seal and other fisheries, its furs 
and its gold fields, and to speak of its educational 
growth, government, and general industries. 



UPPER YUKON— LEWIS RIVER. 55 



CHAPTER IX. 

UPPER YUKON— LEWIS RIVER. 

From Lake Bennett to the head of the Lewis — Down the 
Lewis to the Yukon — A country of lakes and rivers — 
The Klondike region proper — Its extent — Rich gold dis- 
coveries eastward from the Klondike — Dr. Dawson's 
opinion of the Klondike— Surveyor Oglivie's explora- 
tions. 

The reader is now invited to leave Alaska behind for 
the present, and all together, so far as its physical 
features and natural resources are concerned, and to 
accompany the writer into that golden northland lying 
between the international boundary line and the 
sources of the Mackenzie. We have already seen much 
of this country, but must now study it at greater length, 
not only from the standpoint of its natural features, 
but also with a view to the development of its gold and 
other mineral resources. 

It has already been intimated in this volume that 
the gold discoveries of the Klondike are likely to be 
eclipsed or many times duplicated by equal or richer 
strikes in the vast country to the east of that imme- 
diate district, and even beyond the watershed, among 
the many creeks and river-branches on the eastern 
slopes of the Rockies, and throughout the foothills at 
their base. This statement has been several times re- 
peated for the purpose of impressing the reader with 
its importance. It has gone out from some quarters 
that all the paying sections or claims of the Klondike, 
have already been taken up or staked out, and that 
there are more miners in the country than there are 
paying gold claims to be worked. This is sheer non- 
sense. 

Dr. G. M. Dawson, president of the Geological sec- 



56 THE GOLDEN NORTH 

tion of the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science, and chief director of the natural history and 
geological survey of the Dominion of Canada, who 
has traveled more extensively throughout the upper 
Yukon and the upper Jvlackenzie regions than any 
other explorer, with the possible exception of William 
Ogilvie, gave his opinion of the extent of the gold, and 
mineral deposits generally, of the far northwest, a few- 
days ago at Toronto, Ontario. 

Dr. Dawson, although a man of conservative views 
on almost all subjects, has become an enthusiast on 
the question of the resources of the Golden North. 
Speaking of the Klondike country, he said: 

"The Klondike has a glorious future, a period to 
grow bright with the luster of unlimited gold, white 
with the sheen of enormous quantities of silver and 
glittering with the brilliancy of hundreds of valuable 
mineral deposits." 

This is the opinion of an expert; but of course it is 
the language of an enthusiast. It is seldom that one 
hears such extravagant words from the tongue of a 
geologist of such eminence as Dr. Dawson, but it is 
impossible for one who is able to read lessons in nat- 
ural history from the rocks and the borders of rivers 
and lakes, to travel through the north land, compre- 
hending its wonderful resources as he must, without 
becoming enthusiastic, and writing and talking in ex- 
travagant terms. Here he beholds a country greater 
in its capabilities of sustaining a population in high 
latitudes than any other, in any part of the earth. And 
in addition to this, he is inspired by the presence of 
vast deposits of precious metals, and by the existence 
of inexhaustible coal areas. 

On the occasion referred to Dr. Dawson made the 
following interesting and instructive statement: 

"Ten years ago I was in the Klondike region as the 
head of the Royal Survey of the Dominion. At that 
time the gold-producing qualities of the locality were 
but little known, and we did not pay especial attention 



UPPER YUKON— LEWIS RIVER. 57 

to the locality now known as the Klondike. Our sur- 
vey included the country drained by the Upper Yukon 
River, however. We spent one complete summer 
there. There was a little bar-mining in the rivers, but 
no great strikes had been made, although just after 
we left the richness of Forty Mile Creek was found out. 

"Speaking on the general characteristics of the 
region, I should not hesitate to say it is extremely rich 
in gold. It is like other great mining districts in that 
the alluvial metal washed down by the streams has 
been first discovered and collected. But the mountains 
from which these streams rise must also be rich in gold. 
There, some day, the great lodes and veins of aurifer- 
ous quartz will be found and worked, while stamp mills 
and plants of machinery will be scattered thickly about 
the mountains. But this quartz must yet be discov- 
ered. 

"The western part of British Columbia in the neigh- 
borhood of Alaska is a region of extraordinarily com- 
plex and varied geological conditions. Our survey, of 
course, merely noted the general features in evidence 
there. It would take years of labor to complete the 
task down to the details. But all kinds .of minerals, 
judging from what we saw, are certain to be discovered 
there, and, while I am unwilling to predict special 
finds of any one metal, I have no doubt but that all the 
more common ones will be found in abundance. Al- 
ready, silver bearing lead ores have been found, and 
others are certain to follow. I have no doubt but that 
some day the Klondike will be a great silver-mining 
field. 

"As for the story published in the newspapers of the 
discovery of a great petroleum lake surrounded by 
hills of coal, it is a joke to a scientific man. I not only 
do not think there is any such, but think none will ever 
be found. But coal does exist in the Klondike region. I 
found it there myself. 

"The Yukon is not such a bad country as is imagined 
by a great many people, except in winter. The sum- 

5 



58 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

mer climate is good, though it does not last very long. 
The country is pretty and green, and pleasant to work 
in. But the winters are long and extremely cold. Al- 
together, the weather conditions are likely to prove 
far from being rigorous enough to prevent the mineral 
development of the region. 

"The task is a tremendous one. With the extremely 
large area to be covered and tlie difficulties in the 
way of locomotion and transportation, it is going to 
require considerable time and great labor to thor- 
oughly develop the region. But such great finds of 
auriferous gold as those recently made, give rise to 
the belief that the coming work of development will 
be extraordinarily profitable." 

In further proof of the rich gold deposits eastward 
from the Klondike, and in support of the contention 
that the farther the prospector penetrates the foothills 
of the western, and even the eastern slopes of the Mac- 
kenzie watershed, the richer gold strikes he will meet 
with, the following information is submitted, gleaned 
from a letter sent out by one of the miners from Daw- 
son City, under date of June 22, 1897. 

A summary of this letter is to the effect that "A strike 
that is credited with showing fabulously rich dirt has 
been made on an unnamed creek 60 miles above Klon- 
dike. Forty-seven pounds of gold were taken from the 
hole, and there has been a rush of the luckless ones 
from Klondike to the new diggings. News of the dis- 
covery reached Juneau on August 7 in a letter written 
by James O'Brien to W. H. Hindle. O'Brien, in his 
brief letter, declares that six of the streams tributary to 
the Klondike have proved richer than the most san- 
guine had predicted, and that the output in the new 
field more than redeemed the golden promise of the 
Klondike. O'Brien says that the news of the find 
above Klondike had only reached Dawson City, but 
that he saw one steamer pull out for the new diggings 
with 170 men on board." 

And so it will be. Still richer gold fields will be met 



UPPER YUKON— LEWIS RIVER. 59 

with as the mining progresses eastward, until placer 
and quartz will be profitably carried on everywhere, on 
both sides of the Rockies in that golden northland. 

An account of the expedition to the far northwest 
in 1887 and the years following, headed by Dr. Daw- 
son and Mr. Ogilvie, has already been given. How- 
ever, Mr. Ogilvie returned to the country in 1890 and 
is still there, continuing his valuable work of survey 
and exploration. A description of the region, gleaned 
from his reports, will prove of considerable value. Our 
attention is first directed to the Lewis River, its af- 
fluent streams and the resources of the adjacent coun- 
try. Starting at the head of Lake Bennett, one may 
traverse the whole Lewis River Basin. Above that 
point and between it and Lake Lindeman, there is only 
about three-quarters of a mile of river which is not 
more than fifty or sixty yards wide and two or three 
feet deep, and is so swift and rough that navigation is 
rendered very difficult and almost impossible. Lake 
Lindeman is about five miles long, and a half mile 
wide, and is deep enough for all the demands of navi- 
gation in that country. Lake Bennett, at the head of 
which a saw-mill has been established, and where lum- 
ber for boat building is now being sold at $100 per 
thousand feet, is over twenty-six miles long, the upper 
portion being very narrow — not more than a half mile 
wide. Near the center a vast arm comes in from the 
west. This Schwatka mistook for a river and named 
it Wheaton River. This arm has its source or head in 
a glacier, which lies in the pass at the head of Chilkoot 
Inlet. It is surrounded by high mountains. A deep, 
wide yalley extends northwards from the north end of 
Lake Bennett, extending to the canyon a short distance 
above it. The waters of the lake empty at the extreme 
northeast angle through a channel not more than one 
hundred yards wide, and later it expands into what 
Schwatka called Lake Nares. This channel has a swift 
current and is about seven feet deep. The ice breaks 
up in Lake Bennett early in June, frequently by the 



60 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

first of the month. The connecting waters between 
Lake Bennett and Tagish Lake constitute what is now 
called Cariboo Crossing. 

Lake Nares is only two and one-half miles long and 
its greatest width is only a mile. It is not deep, but 
is navigable for boats drawing a little over 
five feet of water. It is separated from Lake 
Bennett by a shallow sand-point of not more 
than 200 yards in length. Strange to say, no streams 
of any consequence flow into either of these lakes. 
Lake Nares flows through a narrow, curved channel 
into Bove Lake, a channel not more than 600 or 700 
yards long, but the water in it is sufficiently deep for 
boats that can navigate either of the lakes. This Bove 
Lake is the Tagish Lake of Dr. Dawson. It is about 
a mile wide for the first two miles of its length, where 
it is joined by what the miners have properly called 
the Windy Arm. Here the lake expands to a width of 
about two miles for a distance of some three miles, 
when it suddenly narrows to about a half a mile, for a 
distance of a little over a mile, after which it widens 
again. Ten miles from the head of the lake it is joined 
by the Taku Arm from the south, which is of consid- 
erable length. Dr. Dawson included Bove Lake and 
both of these arms under the name of Tagish Lake. 

From the junction with the Taku Arm to the north 
end of the lake, the distance is about six miles, the 
greater part being over two miles wide. Where the 
river leaves the lake it is about 150 yards wide and for 
a short distance not more than five or six feet deep. 
It soon increases to ten feet or more, and so continues 
down to Mud Lake. 

Marsh Lake, the next in order, is about nineteen 
miles long and two miles wide. The piece of river 
connecting Mud Lake with Marsh Lake is about five 
miles long and nearly 200 yards wide. Along its banks 
are situated a considerable number of Indian houses 
showing some pretension and skill in construction. 
They are now in ruins. 



UPPER YUKON— LEWIS RIVER. 6l 

► The Lewis River, where it leaves Marsh Lake, is 
about 200 yards wide, and averages this width as far 
as the canyon. It is very deep. From the head of Lake 
Bennett to the canyon, the distance is ninety-five miles, 
all of which is navigable for boats drawing five feet of 
water. Below the canyon proper there is a stretch of 
rapids about a mile in length, then about a half mile of 
smooth water. Following these are the White Horse 
Rapids, which are nearly half a mile long and unsafe 
for boats. The total fall in the canyon and succeeding 
rapids is thirty-two feet. For some distance below the 
White Horse Rapids the current is swift and the river 
wide, with many gravel bars. But little prospecting 
has yet been done on these bars, but they undoubtedly 
contain valuable gold deposits. 

The reach between these rapids and Lake Labarge, 
a distance of some twenty-seven miles, is smooth water 
but with a strong current. The average width through- 
out this distance is about 150 yards. About midway in 
this stretch the Tahkeena River joins the Lewis. It 
is about half the size of the latter. It runs through a 
clayey district. It has its source in a lake of consider- 
able size, and may be navigated up to that point. Lake 
Labarge is thirty-one miles long and is of various 
widths — from four miles to one. The width of the 
Lewis River where it leaves this lake is about the 
same as its entrance, namely, 200 yards. After leaving 
Lake Labarge, the river for a distance of about five 
miles preserves a uniform width and an easy current 
of about four miles an hour. It then turns around a 
low gravel point and flows in exactly the opposite to 
its general course, for a mile, when it again resumes 
its general direction. The current around this bend is 
very swift, reaching several miles an hour. Not far be- 
low, the Teslintoo enters the Lewis. This is a very 
large stream, wider, though not deeper, than the Lewis 
above the junction. There are a considerable number 
of Indians located at this junction. The Teslintoo is 
about 175 miles long, taking its rise in a lake which 



62 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

has not yet been explored, but which is said to be fully 
150 miles long. 

Between the Teslintoo and the Big Salmon the dis- 
tance is thirty-three miles, throughout which the Lewis 
preserves a uniform width and current. The Big Sal- 
mon is about a hundred yards wide at its mouth, and 
about five feet deep. Its valley is wide and affords 
some magnificent scenery. The mountains on either 
side tower very high and are covered with perpetual 
snow. Some of them are 5,000 feet above the valley. 
The river is about 190 miles long to its lake sources. 
The course of the Lewis River from the Tahkeena to 
the Big Salmon is a little east of north. At the 
latter point it turns to nearly west, and so continues 
for some distance, when its course to the confluence 
with the Pelly becomes northeast. Thirty-six miles 
below the Big Salmon, the Little Salmon River enters 
the Lewis. It is about sixty yards wide at its mouth, 
but not more than two or three feet deep. Eight miles 
below Little Salmon River a large rock, called the 
Eagle's Nest, rises from a gravel slope on the eastward 
bank of the river to a height of about 500 feet. Thirty- 
two miles below Eagle's Nest rock, Nordenskiold 
River enters from the west. It is an unimportant river. 
A curious feature of the Lewis River, some distance 
below the mouth of the last stream named, is the Five 
Finger Rapids, so called from the fact that five large 
masses of rock stand in mid-channel. About two miles 
below these rapids the Tatshum River enters from the 
east. It is an unimportant stream. The Indians are 
generally engaged hereabouts, during the season, in 
the salmon catch. It is 58 miles from the Five Finger 
Rapids to the mouth of the Pelly River. In all this 
distance no streams of importance enter the Lewis. At 
the junction with the Pelly, the Lewis is about half a 
mile wide. At this point there are many islands. A 
mile below the junction of the Pelly and Lewis, at the 
ruins of Fort Selkirk, the Yukon is 565 yards wide. 
About two thirds of this width is over ten feet deep, 



UPPER YUKON— LEWIS RIVER. 63 

with a current of nearly five miles an hour. Pelly River 
at its mouth is about 200 yards wide. A complete de- 
scription of the Pelly River basin is given by Dr. 
Dawson in his report entitled "Yukon District and 
Northern British Columbia." 

The character of the country along the Yukon River, 
from the junction of the Lewis and Pelly to the inter- 
national boundary line at Seventy Mile Creek, has al- 
ready been partially described. For this distance the 
river flows in a generally northwesterly direction. On 
the southwest side, in part, but principally on the 
northeast side, is the Klondike country proper. The 
chief settlements on the river, proceeding from the 
boundary, are Fort Cudahy, Forty Mile Post, Dawson 
City, near the junction of the Klondike River with the 
Yukon, and Sixty Mile Post, at the junction of Sixty 
Mile Creek with the river. There are a vast number 
of creeks flowing into the Klondike, all of them gold- 
bearing. These rivers and creeks, including the Stew- 
art River, the Indian River, the Klondike and its 
branches, find their sources in the foothills of the 
Rocky Mountains north of the Pelly and McMillan 
rivers. This stretch of gold-bearing country lies be- 
tween the 136th and 140th degrees of longitude, and be- 
tween the parallels of 63.30 and 65 north latitude. In 
these latitudes the length of the degrees of longitude 
is about thirty-two miles, thus making the Klondike 
country proper about 130 miles from east to west, by 
a little over a hundred miles from north to south. Only 
a very small portion of this territory has yet been 
searched by the prospectors; and, of course, the vast 
gold-bearing regions, both north and south and princi- 
pally to the east of this section, have, as yet, been but 
partially explored by surveyors. 



64 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER X. 
UPPER YUKON AND TRIBUTARIES. 

The North Country from the International Boundary to the 
junction of the Lewis and Pelly — The Stewart River- 
Other streams — Sixty Mile River — The Klondike River 
and tributary creeks— Forty Mile River. 

It will prove useful to one studying the physical 
features of the auriferous areas of the Klondike region 
to make some further observations on the country 
lying between the international boundary line and the 
junction of the Lewis and Pelly rivers, before ascend- 
ing the basin of the latter stream. 

It is ninety-six miles from Selkirk to White River. 
On this stretch islands are numerous. Some of them 
are of considerable size, and the greater part are well 
timbered. Bars are numerous, nearly all being com- 
posed of gravel. White River enters the main stream 
from the west. At its mouth it is about 200 yards wide. 
A great portion of it here, however, is rilled with con- 
stantly shifting sand-bars, the main current being con- 
fined to a channel not more than 100 yards in width. 
The current is very strong. The valley of this river 
runs due west for over eight miles; thence it bears to 
the southwest. It is about two miles wide and holds 
that width for most of its length. 

There is much clay soil along the White River 
banks. The stream takes its rise further up than the 
source of Forty Mile River, but near the same valley, 
and probably in the Mentasia Pass, between which 
and the head waters of the Tanana River there are 
mountain ranges. The length of this stream is not 
yet fully determined. 

Between White and Stewart rivers, a distance of ten 
miles, the Yukon is a mile wide and is a maze of islands 



UPPER YUKON AND TRIBUTARIES. 65 

and bars. The main channel is along the westerly 
shore. Stewart River enters from the east, from the 
center of a wide valley with low hills on both sides 
rising in steps or terraces. The river, a little distance 
above its mouth, is two hundred yards wide. The cur- 
rent is not strong. A miner named Alexander Mc- 
Donald, of New Brunswick, spent a whole summer on 
this river and its vicinity, prospecting with good re- 
sults. He states that about seventy miles up the Stew- 
art a large creek enters from the south, to which he 
gave the name of Rose Bud River, and that about forty 
miles further up a large stream flows from the north- 
east. This is- no doubt Beaver River. From the head 
of this stream one may float down to the mouth, in a 
canoe or on a raft, in five days, which indicates that the 
stream is over 200 miles in length. It is from sixty to 
seventy yards wide and is about four or five feet deep. 
The current is not strong. Above this stream the Stew- 
art is considerably over one hundred yards wide, with 
an even current, and clear water. Sixty or seventy 
miles above the branch mentioned a large river joins 
it, though Mr. Ogilvie thinks this may be the main 
stream. At the head of it is a lake thirty miles long 
and about a mile and a half in width, which has been 
called Mayhew Lake. Thirty miles on the other 
branch there are falls estimated to be two hundred 
feet in height. Overcoming these falls by a portage, 
one may proceed to the head of this stream where are 
terraced gravel hills which are filled with virgin gold 
in paying quantities. Crossing these, the traveler will 
find a river flowing to the north. On this, he may em- 
bark and float down to some point, no one yet knows 
where, as the stream has not been explored. 

Returning to the head waters of the stream in the 
gold bearing hills just mentioned, the prospector may 
travel westward over a high range of mountains, com- 
posed of shales with many thin seams of gold bearing 
quartz. On the west side of this range there is a river 
flowing out of a large lake. Crossing this to the head 



66 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

of Beaver River, one may descend to the main stream, 
and to the Yukon. It is supposed that the river flow- 
ing to the north over the gold hills mentioned, is one 
of the branches of the Peel River. It is evident that 
light draught steamers can navigate the whole of Stew- 
art River and its principal tributaries. 

From Stewart River to the site of Fort Reliance, on 
the Yukon, a little over seventy-three miles, the great 
river is broad and full of islands. Its average width is 
half a mile, but there are many expansions where it is 
over a mile in breadth. 

There are many islands in these wide stretches of 
the Yukon. About twenty miles below the Stewart, 
Sixty Mile Creek enters. The banks of this stream 
are well stocked with virgin gold, and from the gravel 
much of the treasure has already been taken by min- 
ers. Sixty Mile Creek is a hundred miles in length, 
very crooked, and has a swift current. Miller, Glacier, 
Gold, Little Gold, and Bed Rock creeks are all tribu- 
taries of Sixty Mile. Very rich discoveries of gold 
have been made on these streams, but much of it has 
already been mined. There is a claim on Miller Creek, 
from which over $100,000 worth of gold has been 
taken. Freight for this mining district is taken up 
Forty Mile Creek in summer, for a distance of over 
thirty miles, and is then portaged across to the head 
of Miller and Glacier creeks. In winter it is hauled 
in by dogs. The trip from Cudahy to the Post at the 
mouth of Sixty Mile River, is made by ascending Forty 
Mile Creek a little distance, making a short portage 
to Sixty Mile River, and running down with its swift 
current. Coming back on the Yukon, nearly the whole 
round trip is made down stream. 

Indian Creek enters the Yukon from the east about 
thirty miles below Sixty Mile River. It is rich in gold 
and has already been . extensively mined. It was 
neglected for some time, owing to the difficulty of get- 
ting supplies to the mining camps. At the mouth of 
Sixty Mile River a town site has been laid out, called 



68 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Sixty Mile. It has been the headquarters of many 
miners, most of whom, however, have recently moved 
further to the east. There is a saw mill and trading 
post at the mouth of the river. 

Six and a half miles above Fort Reliance, the Klon- 
dike River enters the Yukon. It is a small stream — 
about forty yards wide at its mouth, and quite shal- 
low. The water, however, is clear and transparent, 
and of a beautiful blue color. The stream is filled with 
salmon, and from it the Indians reap a rich harvest 
of the king of fish every season. This river and its 
creek tributaries have been fully explored by pros- 
pectors, and upon their banks and bottoms some of 
the richest gold claims ever located have been de- 
veloped. It is all placer mining here. Many fortunes 
have been made in the Klondike within the past year, 
and as these lines are penned (August, 1897) gold is 
being taken from the gravel and dirt of the region, 
probably at the rate of $100,000 a day, or more. 

Twelve and a half miles below Fort Reliance the 
Chandindu River, as it was named by Schwatka, en- 
ters from the east. It is thirty to forty yards wide at 
the mouth, very shallow, and for half a mile up is one 
continuous rapid. Its valley is wide and can be seen 
for a long distance looking north-eastward from the 
mouth. 

Between Fort Reliance and Forty Mile River the 
Yukon assumes its normal appearance, having fewer 
islands and being narrower, averaging four to six 
hundred yards wide, and the current being more regu- 
lar. This stretch is forty-six miles long, but was es- 
timated by the traders at forty, from which the Forty 
Mile River took its name. 

Forty Mile River joins the Yukon from the west. 
Forty Mile townsite is located at its mouth. The 
Alaska Commercial Company has a station here. There 
are also several blacksmith shops, restaurants, billiard 
halls, bakeries, an opera house and so on. Rather 
more than half a mile below Forty Mile townsite, the 



UPPER YUKON AND TRIBUTARIES. 69 

town of Cudahy was founded on the north side of 
Forty Mile River, in the summer of 1892. It is named 
after a well known member of the North American 
Transportation and Trading Company. In population 
and extent of business the town bears comparison 
with its neighbor across the river. The opposition in 
trade has been the means of very materially reducing 
the cost of supplies and living. The North American 
Transportation and Trading Company has erected a 
saw-mill and some extensive warehouses. Fort Con- 
stantine was established here immediately upon the 
arrival of the Mounted Police detachment in the latter 
part of July, 1895. 

Forty Mile River has a general southwest course, 
as far up as the international boundary line, a distance 
of twenty-three miles. From this point it runs more 
from the south. The stream has been ascended for 
more than one hundred miles. It is only a short dis- 
tance from the head of this river across to the Tanana, 
a large tributary of the Yukon. Only twenty-three 
miles of Forty Mile River are in Canada. The greater 
part of it is in Alaska. It is nearly a hundred and 
fifty yards wide at its mouth, and the current is gen- 
erally strong, with many small rapids. There is a 
canyon about eight miles up this stream. At the lower 
end of it is a swift current in which are some rocks 
that cannot be seen by the descending voyager, owing 
to a sudden bend in the river. Several miners have 
been drowned in this rapid by their canoes or boats 
being dashed to pieces on the rocks. Between Forty 
Mile River and the boundary line, no streams of any 
size join the Yukon. 



70 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XL 

UPPER YUKON— AGRICULTURE AND TIMBER. 

Only a small proportion of the region available for cereal 
and vegetable crops— Considerable areas of timber suit- 
able for manufacturing purposes — An abundance of trees 
for firewood and for all mining necessities. 

The agricultural capabilities of the upper Yukon 
basin are not great. Hence the miners in that region 
will be compelled to draw most of their supplies of 
bread and meat, vegetables and dairy products from 
markets far to the south, until the fertile valleys to 
east and west have been cultivated and developed. The 
land is not of a very good quality hereabouts, and 
the climate is not favorable to the growth of cereals or 
vegetables. 

The temperature records show an average of 8 de- 
grees of frost for August. The meteorological rec- 
ord for September places the mercury considerably 
below freezing point. Along the east side of Lake 
Bennett, opposite the Chilkoot, there are quite ex- 
tensive flats of dry, gravelly soil, where farming can be 
carried on to a limited extent. On the west side, 
around the mouth of Wheaton River, there is a very 
extensive flat of sand and gravel, covered with pine 
and spruce of a small growth. The vegetation is poor 
and sparse. At the lower end of the lake there is an- 
other extensive flat of sandy soil, thinly covered with 
small poplars and pines. 

There are great tracts of low, marshy land on the 
westerly shore of Tagish Lake, which will, no doubt, 
prove very productive. The same may be said of the 
western borders of Marsh Lake, which district is pretty 
well covered with native grasses. Along the head of 



UPPER YUKON— AGRICULTURE, ETC. 7 1 

the river below Marsh Lake, there are extensive flats 
on both sides. There the soil is good, and the growth 
of forest trees and under brush is healthy and well de- 
veloped. In that region agriculture will thrive. 

As we approach the canyon the banks become higher, 
and the bottom lands less extensive. Here the soil is 
light and sandy on both sides. Between the canyon 
and Lake Labarge there is not much land of value. 
At the head of the lake there is an extensive flat, pretty 
well covered with timber that is much larger and bet- 
ter than any met with above this point. Poplars eight 
and ten inches thick, are common, and there is a con- 
siderable quantity of spruce from fifteen to sixteen 
inches in diameter. The soil, however, is not very 
good, and vegetation is sparse. Some distance down 
the lake the soil and vegetation show great improve- 
ment. On the lower end of the lake there is a large 
plain well suited to agricultural pursuits. Northward 
from the end of the lake, Ogilvie Valley stretches out 
to a vast extent. Here the soil is good and the timber 
of large size. About forty miles above the mouth of 
the Pelly there are extensive flats on both sides of 
the Lewis River. The soil is poor and sandy, with 
small open timber consisting of spruce and popular. 
For many miles up the Pelly and down the Yukon, 
from the junction, there is an extensive plateau, two 
or three hundred feet above the river. On this, the soil 
is good for pasturage only. It is very lightly timbered. 

Between Pelly and White rivers, there is an exten- 
sive flat of many thousand acres. It is quite heavily 
timbered, and as the surface is covered with a heavy 
layer of moss, the frost never leaves the ground. At 
Stewart River there is another large flat to which the 
same remarks will apply. Thence to Fort Reliance 
there are no flats of any size. Above the river, in most 
of this region, there are extensive wooded slopes, 
which, when cleared, will no doubt be quite well 
adapted to cereal and vegetable productions. 

At Fort Reliance there is a flat of about 2,000 acres, 



72 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

and at the mouth of Forty Mile River there is another, 
but not as large. All the rivers of this part of the 
country are cleared of ice from the 25th of May to 
the 1st of June. The extent of tillable lands in the 
upper Yukon region bears a very small proportion to 
the areas which are practically worthless for agricul- 
tural purposes, but the timber is sufficient in quantity 
and quality for the necessities of a mining country. 
Probably not more than 250,000 acres or 1,000 farms 
of workable lands could be located in that part of the 
country. This is exclusive of the available lands at the 
junction of the Pelly and Lewis rivers, where the tract 
is sufficiently large to lay out about 2,000 farms. 

The amount of timber in the district suitable for 
building and manufacturing is considerable; for fire 
wood, and use in the mines, there is an abundance. 
There is a great deal of excellent timber on the islands 
in the Yukon. On these the soil is warmer and richer, 
the sun's rays striking the surface for a much longer 
time, and more directly, than on the banks. 

At the confluence with the Pelly, on the east side of 
the river, there is a grove of spruce from which some 
very nice lumber could be made, and on the islands 
below this point, much of the same class of timber 
exists. Near White and Stewart rivers there is a good 
deal of nice clean timber, but it is small. There is 
more good timber on Stewart River, in proportion to 
the ground wooded, than on the main river. Between 
Stewart River and the boundary there is not so much 
surface covered with large trees as on many of the 
flats above it, the valley being generally narrower, 
and the sides steeper, than higher up the river. This, 
of course, precludes the growth of timber. 

The whole country stretching from the international 
boundary line to the summit of the Rockies, includ- 
ing the basins of the upper Yukon, the Pelly and Lewis 
rivers, and the regions between them and to the north 
of the Pelly, is timbered in about the same manner. 
In some localities the trees are workable for building 



UPPER YUKON— AGRICULTURE, ETC. 73 

purposes; but the greater part of the forests is avail- 
able only for fire wood, mining purposes, log houses, 
and the like. . However, there is an abundance of it 
for these requirements. 



74 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

CHAPTER XII. 

WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 

Inexhaustible deposits of placer and quartz gold — The sil- 
ver-bearing rock — Vast coal fields — Reports of govern- 
ment officials that read like tales of the Arabian Nights 
— Sensational reports of Explorer Ogilvie. 

Probably no stretch of country of equal area on the 
earth is so rich in the precious metals, and minerals 
generally, including coal, as that of the upper Yukon 
and the basins of the Pelly and Lewis rivers. Only a 
small part of this vast region has yet been explored, 
but it has been sufficiently gone over by natural his- 
tory and mining experts to demonstrate that the whole 
district is of the same auriferous and mineral bearing 
character. While some river-beds and banks are richer 
than others, there is scarcely a square mile of this great 
territory that cannot be profitably worked for some 
precious metal or other valuable mineral deposit 

Most of the region is rich in virgin gold. Silver 
predominates in some of the districts, and there is an 
abundance of good coal. Silver frequently abounds in 
the immediate neighborhood of rich placer-gold de- 
posits.* This is true of Forty Mile River. About two 
miles from its mouth, where there are extensive ex- 
posures of white and gray limestone, many seams and 
pockets of galena have been discovered. One of these 
seams has been traced and found to be of vast extent. 
Specimens assayed show nearly forty ounces of silver 
to the ton. The silver mines here, as elsewhere in 
that country, are known to be very rich. Specimens 
recently assayed show as high as two hundred ounces 
to the ton. All of these specimens were found by ac- 
cident. A closer examination of the silver deposits 
will, no doubt, reveal more valuable seams. Dr. Daw- 



WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 75 

son declares that almost fabulous silver deposits exist 
in that country. 

Aside from the rich placer-gold deposits, which have 
yielded so much wealth during the past year, equally 
rich quartz gold strikes have been made; but as the 
region is still inaccessible for quartz mining machin- 
ery no development has yet been made on this line. 
Both gold and silver-bearing quartz has been discov- 
ered near Sixty Mile River. A specimen of gold-bear- 
ing quartz, found near White River, assayed the 
enormous value of $20,000 to the ton. This specimen 
was taken from a seam nearly 2,000 feet above the 
Yukon water-level. There is also an extensive ledge 
of gold-bearing quartz on the west side of the Yukon, 
not far above Stewart River. There is also an extensive 
exposure of gold-bearing rock not far from Lake Ben- 
nett. Specimens of this have assayed $9.00 of gold and 
$1.00 of silver to the ton. Mr. Ogilvie says, however, 
that this rock-area is near Lake Tagish. 

So far as explorations have been made upon which 
a reasonable estimate can be based, there are 4,000 
miles of stream in the upper Yukon district upon 
which placer-gold can be profitably worked. The un- 
explored regions will probably add 5,000 miles to this 
river and creek extent. Mr. Ogilvie, writing of his 
explorations in 1887, says: 

"About eighteen miles below the Teslintoo, I saw 
the first place that had been worked for gold. Here a 
hut had been erected, and there were indications that 
a party had wintered there. Between it and Big Sal- 
mon River six other locations were met with. One 
of them named Cassiar Bar, was worked in the season 
of 1886, by a party of four, who took out $6,000 in 
thirty days. They were working there when I passed 
in 1887, but stated that all they could get that season 
was about $10 per day. 

"Two of this party subsequently went down to Forty 
Mile River, where I met one of them. He was a 
Swede, and had been gold-mining for upwards of 



76 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

twenty-five years in California and British Columbia. 
He gave me his opinion on the district in these words : 
'I never saw a country where there was so much gold, 
and so evenly distributed; no place is very rich, but no 
place is very poor; every man can make a "grub stake" 
(that is enough to feed and clothe him for a year), 
which is more than I can say of the other places I have 
been in.' 

"In conversation with Mr. Boswell, who, as already 
stated, has prospected the Teslintoo, or Newberry 
River, in the summer of 1887, I learned that the whole 
length of that river yielded fine gold, generally at the 
rate of $8 to $10 per day; but as the miners' great 
desideratum is coarse gold, they do not remain long 
in a country in which only the fine gold is found — 
generally no longer than is necessary to make a 'grub 
stake/ unless gold is in unusually large quantities. 
Mr. Boswell therefore went to the lower part of the 
river, having heard the reports of rich finds. Stewart 
River was the first in the district on which mining to 
any extent was done. In 1886 there were quite a num- 
ber of miners on it engaged in washing gold, and they 
all appear to have done fairly well. 

"I have heard the amount of gold taken from Stew- 
art River in 1885 and 1886 estimated at various 
amounts. One estimate was $300,000. The highest 
amount I Heard as representing one man's earnings 
was about $6,000. This may be true, as many agree 
that $30 per day, per man, was common on many of 
the bars of the river, and instances of as high as $100 
per day having been earned, were spoken of. The only 
mining done on Stewart River was on the bars in the 
river; the bench and bank bars were all timbered and 
frozen, so that to work them would entail a resort to 
hydraulic mining, for which there was no machinery 
in the country. 

"During the fall of 1886, three or four miners com- 
bined and got the owners of the 'New Racket' steam- 
boat to allow the use of her engines to work pumps 



WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 77 

for sluicing with. The boat was hauled up on a bar, 
her engines detached from the wheels, and made to 
drive a set of pumps manufactured on the ground, 
which supplied water for a set of sluicing boxes. With 
this crude machinery, in less than a month, the miners 
cleared $1,000 each and paid an equal amount to the 
owners of the boat as their share. 

"Many of the miners who had spent 1886 on Stew- 
art River, and 1887 on Forty Mile River, seemed to 
think the former the better all-round mining field, as 
there were no such failures there as on Forty Mile, 
and they declared their intention to make their way 
to the Stewart, for the season of 1888. Forty Mile 
River is the only river in the district on which, up to 
the fall of 1888, coarse gold had been found, and it 
may be said that much of it can hardly claim that dis- 
tinctive title. The largest nugget found was worth 
about $39. It was lost on the body of a miner who 
was drowned at the canyon. 

"The miners term Forty Mile a 'bed-rock' creek — 
that is, one in the bed of which there is little or no 
drift, or detrital matter, the bottom of the river being 
bed-rock. In many places this rock has been scraped 
with knives by the miners, in order to gather the 
small amount of detritus and its accompanying gold. 
Very little of the gold on this creek was found in 
Canadian territory, the coarsest gold being found well 
up the river. The river had been prospected in 1887 
for upwards of one hundred miles, and gold found all 
the way up. The great point with a miner is to find 
where the gold comes from. To this end he has to 
reach a point on the river where there is none; then he 
knows he has passed the source, and will search in 
side valleys and gulches. The theory seems to be that 
the gold is stored up somewhere and dribbled out 
along the river. Pieces of gold-bearing quartz had 
frequently been picked up along the river in the shal- 
low drift, but none had been found in place, nor did 
it appear to me that much search had been made for it. 



78 THE "GOLDEN NORTH 

Near the mouth of the river, there is an extensive flat 
of detrital matter through which a couple of small 
creeks flow. This is all said to be gold-bearing, and 
it was thought, would pay well for sluicing. Accord- 
ingly, a couple of claimants had staked off claims at the 
mouth of the creeks and intended to try sluicing in the 
season of 1888. 

"I think it may, with confidence, be asserted that rich 
finds will yet be made of both coarse gold and gold- 
bearing quartz. It is not likely in the nature of things 
that such a vast extent of country should have all its 
fine gold deposited as sediment, brought from a dis- 
tance in past ages. If this is not the case, the matrix, 
from which all gold on these streams has come, must 
still exist, in part at least, and will no doubt be discov- 
ered, and thus enrich this otherwise gloomy and deso- 
late region. There are many bank and bench bars 
along the rivers, which would pay well if sluiced, but 
there is yet no convenient or economical way of get- 
ting water on them, and there is no pumping machin- 
ery as yet in the country." 

It is now nine years since the above was written by 
this veteran explorer of the far northwest, and we, who 
study the region to-day, see how completely Mr. Ogil- 
vie's predictions have been realized. This explorer 
and surveyor re-entered the country in 1895, and con- 
tinued his work of locating the boundary line, and of 
defining the rivers and lakes of the Klondike district. 
He also surveyed several townsites, including Cudahy, 
Forty Mile and Dawson, and one or two mission posts. 
In 1895-6 he made full investigations as to the coal 
deposits, and found them to be of great extent and 
good quality. On Coal Creek one seam was found to 
be twelve feet six inches thick. 

An extensive copper-bearing vein was found near 
the Klondike above Fort Reliance. Asbestos was 
also discovered in paying quantities. In 1895 the 
placer diggings had greatly increased. A survey of 
the Cone Hill quartz gold mine was made in J 895, 



WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 79 

and assays of the quartz taken from the mine proved 
exceedingly satisfactory. The quantity of gold-bear- 
ing rock in this mine will not be exhausted for genera- 
tions. Its extent and richness place the great Tread- 
well mine of Juneau, Alaska, far in the shade. Other 
paying quartz gold claims were located on Twelve 
Mile Creek in the same year. These deposits are even 
richer than at Cone Hill. In 1895 it became evident 
that quartz gold mining would, in the near future, be- 
come a leading feature of the mining camps of the 
Klondike country. 

By the middle of 1895 the Alaska Commercial Com- 
pany had four powerful steamers on the Yukon, and 
the North American Trading and Transportation Com- 
pany were preparing to increase its carrying capacity 
on the same water-way. Thus, on every side, the coun- 
try showed signs of progress. There was then, as there 
still is a great demand for horses, which were being 
taken into the country at a cost of about $250 a head. 

In 1896 coal was found in vast quantities all along 
Coal Creek, and from it up to Twelve Mile Creek, 
which flows into the Yukon thirty miles up the river. 
On the Cornell claim on Cliff Creek, the coal seam was 
ascertained to be nearly six feet thick. It was in 1896 
that coarse gold was discovered in vast deposits on 
the Klondike, or Thron-Diuck, as it was first called. 
Concerning these finds Mr. Ogilvie wrote the Ca- 
nadian Minister of the Interior, under date of Septem- 
ber 6, 1896, as follows: 

"I am very much pleased to be able to inform you 
that a most important discovery of gold has been made 
on a creek called Bonanza Creek, an affluent of the 
river known here as the Klondike. It is marked on 
the map extant as Deer River and joins the Yukon a 
few miles above the site of Fort Reliance. 

"The discovery was made by G. W. Cormack, who 
worked with me in 1887 on the coast range. The in- 
dications are that it is very rich, indeed the richest yet 
found, and as far as work has been carried on, it 



80 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

realizes expectations. It is only two weeks since it was 
known, and already about 200 claims have been staked 
on it and the creek is not yet exhausted; it and its 
branches are considered good for 300 or 400 claims. 
Besides, there are two other creeks above it, 'which, 
it is confidently expected, will yield good pay, and if 
they do so, we have from 800 to 1,000 claims on this 
river which will require over 2,000 men for their prop- 
er working. Between Thron-Diuck River and Stew- 
art River, a large creek called Indian Creek flows into 
the Yukon, and rich prospects have been found on it, 
and no doubt it is in the gold-bearing country between 
Thron-Diuck and Stewart rivers, which is considered 
by all the old miners the best and most extensive gold 
country yet found. Scores of them would prospect 
it but for the fact that they cannot get provisions up 
there, and it is too far to boat them from here in small 
boats. 

"This new find will necessitate an upward step on 
the Yukon and help the Stewart River region. 

"News has just arrived from Bonanza Creek that 
three men worked out $75 in four hours the other day 
and a $12 nugget has been found, which assured the 
character of the ground,. namely, coarse gold and plen- 
ty of it, as three times this can be done with sluice 
boxes. You can fancy the excitement here. It is 
claimed that from $100 to $500 per day can be made 
off the ground that has been prospected so far. As 
we have about 100 claims on Glacier and Miller creeks, 
with three or four hundred in this vicinity, next year 
it is imperative that a man be sent in here to look after 
these claims and all land matters, and it is almost im- 
perative that the agent be a surveyor. Already on 
Bonanza Creek they are disputing about the size of 
claims." 

Speaking at further length of the rich Klondike 
region in the same year, 1896, Mr. Ogilvie said: 

"As I have already intimated rich placer mines of 
gold were discovered on the branches of this stream. 



WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 8l 

The discovery, I believe, was due to the reports of In- 
dians. A white man, named Geo. W. Cormack, who 
worked with me in 1887, was the first to take advantage 
of the rumors and locate a claim on the first branch, 
which was named by the miners Bonanza Creek. 
Cormack located late in August, but had to cut some 
logs for the mill here to get a few pounds of provisions 
to enable him to begin work on his claim. The fishing 
at Thron-Diuck having totally failed him, he returned 
with a few weeks' provisions for himself, his wife and 
brother-in-law (Indians) and another Indian, in the 
last days of August, and immediately set about work- 
ing his claim. As he was very short of appliances, he 
could only put together a rather defective apparatus 
to wash the gravel with.. The gravel itself, he had to 
carry in a box # on his back from 30 to 100 feet; not- 
withstanding this, the three men working very irregu- 
larly, washed out $1,200 in eight days, and Cormack 
asserts with reason, that had he had proper facilities, 
it could have been done in two days, besides having 
several hundred dollars more gold, which was lost in 
the tailings through defective apparatus. 

"On the same creek two men rocked out $75 in 
about four hours, and it is asserted that two men in 
the same creek took out $4,000 in two days with only 
two lengths of sluice boxes. Mr. Leduc assures me he 
weighed that much gold for them. They were new 
comers and had not done much in the country, so the 
probabilities are they got it on Bonanza Creek. A 
branch of Bonanza, named Eldorado, has prospected 
magnificently, and another branch named Tilly Creek 
has prospected well ; in all there are some four or five 
branches to Bonanza which have given good prospects. 
There are about 170 claims staked on the main creek, 
and the branches are good for about as many more, 
aggregating say about 350 claims, which will require 
over 1,000 men to work properly. 

"A few miles farther up Bear Creek enters Thron- 
Diuck, and it has been prospected and located on. 



82 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Compared with Bonanza, it is small, and will not 
afford more than 20 or '30 claims. About twelve miles 
above the mouth, Gold-bottom Creek joins Thron- 
Diuck, and on it and a branch named Hunker Creek, 
very rich ground has been found. One man showed 
me $22.75 he took out in a few hours on Hunker 
Creek with a gold pan, prospecting his claim on the 
surface, taking a handful here and there as fancy 
suggested. On Gold-bottom Creek and branches, 
there will probably be 200 or 300 claims. The Indians 
have reported another creek much farther up, which 
they call 'Too Much Gold Creek,' on which the gold 
is so plentiful that, as the miners say in joke, 'you have 
to mix gravel with it to sluice it.' Up to date, noth- 
ing definite has been heard from this creek. 

"From all this we may, I think, infer that we have 
here a district which will give 1,000 claims of 500 feet 
in length each. Now, 1,000 such claims will require 
at least 3,000 men to work them properly, and as 
wages for working in the mines are from $8 to $10 
per day without board, we have every reason to assume 
that this part of our territory will, in a year or two, 
contain 10,000 souls at least. For the news has gone 
out to the coast, and an unprecedented influx is ex- 
pected next spring. And this is not all, for a large 
creek called Indian Creek joins the Yukon about mid- 
way between Thron-Diuck and Stewart rivers, and all 
along this creek good pay has been found. All that 
has stood in the way of working it heretofore, has been 
the scarcity of provisions, and the difficulty of getting 
them up there even when here. Indian Creek is quite 
a large stream and it is probable it will yield five to six 
hundred claims. Further south yet lies the head of 
several branches of Stewart River, on which some 
prospecting has been done this summer and good in- 
dications found, but the want of provisions prevented 
development. Now gold has been found in several 
of the streams joining Pelly River, and also all along 
the Hootalinqua. In the line of these finds farther 



WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 83 

south is the Cassiar gold field in British Columbia; 
so the presumption is that we have in our territory, 
along the easterly watershed of the Yukon, a gold- 
bearing belt of indefinite width, and upwards of three 
hundred miles long, exclusive of the British Columbia 
part of it. On the westerly side of the Yukon, pros- 
pecting has been done on a creek a short distance 
above Selkirk, with a fair amount of success, and on a 
large creek some thirty or forty miles below Selkirk, 
fair prospects have been found; but, as before re- 
marked, the difficulty of getting supplies here prevents 
any extensive prospecting. 

"Good quartz has been found in places just across 
the line on Davis Creek, but of what extent is un- 
known, as it is in the bed of the creek, and covered with 
gravel. Good quartz is also reported on the hills 
around Bonanza Creek. It is pretty certain from infor- 
mation I have got from prospectors, that all or nearly 
all of the northerly branch of White River, is on our 
side of the line, and copper is found on it, but more 
abundantly on the southerly branch, of which a great 
portion is in our territory also, so it is probable we have 
that metal too. I have seen here several lumps of cop- 
per, brought by the natives from White River, but just 
from what part is uncertain. I have also seen a speci- 
men of silver ore said to have been picked up in a creek 
flowing into Lake Bennett, about fourteen miles down 
it on the east side. I think this is enough to show 
that we may look forward with confidence to a fairly 
bright future for this part of our territory. 

"When it was fairly established that Bonanza Creek 
was rich in gold, which took a few days, for Thron- 
Diuck had been prospected several times with no en- 
couraging result, there was a great rush from all over 
the country adjacent to Forty Mile. The town was 
almost deserted; men who had been in a chronic state 
of drunkenness for weeks were pitched into boats as 
ballast and taken up to stake themselves a claim, and 
claims were staked by men for their friends who were 



84 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

not in the country at the time. All this gave rise to 
such conflict and confusion, there being no one present 
to take charge of matters, the agent being unable to 
go up and attend to the thing, and myself not yet know- 
ing what to do, that the miners held a meeting, and ap- 
pointed one of themselves to measure off and stake 
the claims, and record the owners' names in connection 
therewith, for which he got a fee of. $2, it being of 
course understood that each claim holder would have 
to record his claim with the Dominion agent and pay 
his fee of $15." 

In December, 1896, Mr. Ogilvie wrote: 

"Since my last, the prospects on Bonanza Creek and 
tributaries are increasing in richness and extent until 
now it is certain that millions will be taken out of the 
district in the next few days. 

"On some of the claims prospected the pay dirt is 
of great extent and very rich. One man told me yes- 
terday that he washed out a single pan of dirt on one 
of the claims on Bonanza, and found $14.25 in it. Of 
course that may be an exceptionally rich pan, but $5 
to $7 per pan is the average on that claim it is reported, 
with five feet of pay dirt, and the width yet undeter- 
mined, but it is known to be thirty feet even at that; 
figure the result at nine to ten pans to the cubic foot, 
and 500 feet long; nearly $4,000,000 at $5 per pan. 
One-fourth of this would be enormous. 

"Another claim has been prospected to such an ex- 
tent that it is known there is about five feet pay dirt 
averaging $2 per pan, and width not less than thirty 
feet. Enough prospecting has been done to show that 
there are at least fifteen miles of this extraordinary 
richness; and the indications are that we will have 
three or four times that extent, if not all equal to the 
above, yet all, at least, very rich. 

"It appears a great deal of staking for absentees has 
been done, some of whom have turned up and some 
have not. This has caused confusion, and leads to a 
good deal of what might be called fraud, for it is easy 



WEALTH OF THE KLONDIKE. 85 

for a few in the inner circle to know what claims have 
been recorded in accordance with the law and what 
have not. They can then for themselves, directly or 
through the intervention of a friend, have the latter 
jumped for their whole or partial interest. It appears 
this has been done in several instances." 

Again, under date of January, 1897, Mr. Ogilvie sent 
information to his government, in the following terms : 

'The reports from the Thron-Diuck (Klondike) re- 
gion are still very encouraging; so much so that all 
the other creeks around are practically abandoned, 
especially those on the head of Forty Mile in Ameri- 
can territory, and nearly one hundred men have made 
their way up from Circle City, many of them hauling 
their sleds themselves. Those who cannot get claims 
are buying in on those already located. Men cannot 
be got to work for love or money, and development 
is consequently slow; one and a half dollars per hour 
is the wages paid the few men who have to work for 
hire, and work as many hours as they like. Some of 
the claims are so rich that every night a few pans of 
dirt suffices to pay the hired help when there is any; 
as high as $204 have been reported to a single pan. 
Claim owners are now very reticent about what they 
get, so you can hardly credit anything you hear; but 
one thing is certain, we have one of the richest mining 
areas ever found, with a fair prospect that we have not 
yet discovered its limits. 

"Miller and Glacier creeks on the head of Sixty Mile 
River, which my survey of the 141st meridian deter- 
mined to be in Canada, were thought to be very rich, 
but they are poor both in quality and quantity com- 
pared with Thron-Diuck. 

"Chicken Creek on the head of Forty Mile, in Alas- 
ka, discovered a year ago and rated very high, is to-day 
practically abandoned. 

"Some quartz prospecting has been done in the 
Thron-Diuck region, and it is probable that some good 
veins will be found there. Coal is found on the upper 



86 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

part of Thron-Diuck; so that the facilities for work- 
ing it, if found, are good and convenient. 

"A quartz lode showing free gold in paying quanti- 
ties has been located on one of the creeks, but I can- 
not yet send particulars. I am confident from the na- 
ture of the gold found in the creeks that many more 
of them — and rich, too — will be found. 

"I have just heard from a reliable source that the 
quartz mentioned above is rich, as tested — over one 
hundred dollars to the ton. The lode appears to run 
from three to eight feet in thickness, and is about nine- 
teen miles from the Yukon River. I will likely be 
called on to survey it, and will be able to report fully. 

"Placer prospects continue more and more encour- 
aging and extraordinary. It is beyond doubt that 
three pans on different claims on Eldorado turned out 
$204, $212 and $216; but it must be borne in mind 
that there were only three such pans, though there are 
many running from $10 to $50." 

This closes the official information of the Klondike 
country, up to the middle of August, 1897, but later 
news was received through private sources, which the 
foregoing fully substantiates. 



PROCESS OF PLACER MINING. 87 



CHAPTER XIII. 
PROCESS OF PLACER MINING. 

Methods of the prospector — Use of the Pan, the Rocker and 
the Sluice— Mining in the Far North— Continuous day- 
light in summer and almost perpetual darkness in win- 
ter — Filling the hours of summer with hard work — 
"Burning" in winter — Vast Peace River gold discoveries 
— The Northeast route. 

As many of our readers understand little of the no- 
menclature of the mining craft, or of the methods em- 
ployed to separate the very small particles of the 
precious metals from the baser material with which it 
is associated, a short description will be in place here. 

First, as to prospecting. When a miner ''strikes" a 
bar he "prospects" it by washing a few panfuls of the 
gravel or sand of which it is composed. He is guided 
as to the value of the "dirt" by "colors;" in other words 
by the number of specs of gold he can see in his pan 
after all the dirt has been washed out. Most of these 
prospectors have had sufficient experience to deter- 
mine the value of sand or gravel in a few minutes, and 
to estimate, at once, how much a bar will yield per day 
and per man. 

The process of placer mining has been described as 
follows: "After clearing all the coarse gravel and 
stone off a patch of ground the miner lifts a little of 
the finer gravel or sand in his pan, which is a broad, 
shallow dish, made of strong sheet iron ; he then puts 
in water enough to fill the pan, and gives it a few rapid 
whirls and shakes; this tends to bring the gold to the 
bottom on account of its greater specific gravity. The 
dish is then shaken and held in such a way that the 
gravel and sand are gradually washed out, care being 
taken as the process nears completion to avoid letting 



88 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

out the finer and heavier parts that have settled to the 
bottom. Finally all that is left in the pan is whatever 
gold may have been in the dish and some black sand 
which almost invariably accompanies it. 

"This black sand is nothing but pulverized mag- 
netic iron ore. Should the gold thus found be fine, 
the contents of the pan are thrown into a barrel con- 
taining water and a pound or two of mercury. As 
soon as the gold comes in contact with the mercury it 
combines with it and forms an amalgam. The process 
is continued until enough amalgam has been formed to 
pay for 'roasting' or 'firing.' It is then squeezed 
through a buckskin bag, all the mercury that comes 
through the bag being put back into the barrel to 
serve again, and what remains in the bag is placed in 
a retort, if the miner has one, or if not, on a shovel, 
and heated until nearly all the mercury is vaporized. 
The gold then remains in a lump with some mercury 
still held in combination with it. 

"This is called the 'pan' or 'hand' method, and is 
never, on account of its slowness and laboriousness, 
continued for any length of time when it is possible to 
procure a 'rocker,' or to make and work sluices. 

"A 'rocker' is simply a box about three feet long and 
two wide, made in two parts, the top part being shal- 
low, with a heavy sheet iron bottom, which is punched 
full of quarter-inch holes. The other part of the box 
is fitted with an inclined shelf about midway in its 
depth, which is six or eight inches lower at its lower 
end than at its upper. Over this is placed a piece of 
heavy woolen blanket. The whole is then mounted 
on two rockers, much resembling those of an ordinary 
cradle, and when in use they are placed on two blocks 
of wood so that the whole may be readily rocked. 
After the miner has selected his claim, he looks for the 
most convenient place to set up his 'rocker,' which 
must be near a good supply of water. Then he pro- 
ceeds to clear away all the stones and coarse gravel, 
gathering the finer gravel and sand in a heap near the 



PROCESS OF PLACER MINING. 89 

'rocker.' The shallow box on top is filled with this, 
and with one hand the miner rocks it through, while 
with the other he ladles in water. The finer matter 
with the gold falls through the holes onto the blanket, 
which checks its progress, and holds the fine particles 
of gold while the sand and other matter pass over it 
to the bottom of the box, which is sloped so that what 
comes through is washed . downwards and finally out 
of the box. Across the bottom of the box are fixed 
thin slats, behind which some mercury is placed to 
catch any particles of gold which may escape the blan- 
ket. If the gold is nuggety, the large nuggets are 
found in the upper box, their weight detaining them 
until all the lighter stuff has passed through, and the 
smaller ones are held by a deeper slat at the outward 
end of the bottom of the box. The piece of blanket 
is, at intervals, taken out and rinsed into a barrel; if 
the gold is fine, mercury is placed at the bottom of the 
barrel, as already mentioned. 

"Sluicing is always employed when possible. It re- 
quires a good supply of water with sufficient head or 
fall. The process is as follows : Planks are procured 
and formed into a box of suitable width and depth. 
Slats are fixed across the bottom of the box at suitable 
intervals, or shallow holes bored in the bottom in such 
order that no particle could run along the bottom in 
a straight line and escape without running over a hole. 
Several of these boxes are then set up with a consider- 
able slope and are fitted into one another at the ends 
like a stovepipe. A stream of water is now directed 
into the upper end of the highest box. The gravel 
having been collected, as in the case of the rocker, it 
is shoveled, into the upper box and is washed down- 
wards by the strong current of water. The gold is de- 
tained by its weight and is held by the slats or in the 
holes mentioned; if it is fine, mercury is placed behind 
the slats or in these holes to catch it. In this way about 
three times as much dirt can be washed as by the rock- 
er, and consequently three times as much gold is se- 
7 



90 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

cured in a given time. After the boxes are done with 
they are burned, and the ashes washed for the gold 
held in the wood. 

"A great many of the miners spend their time in the 
summer prospecting and in the winter resort to a 
method lately adopted and which is called 'burning.' 
They make fires on the surface, thus thawing the 
ground until the bed rock is reached, then drift and 
tunnel. The pay dirt is brought to the surface and 
heaped in a pile until spring, when water can be ob- 
tained. The sluice boxes are then set up and the dirt 
is washed out, thus enabling the miner to work ad- 
vantageously and profitably the year round. This 
method has been found very satisfactory in places 
where the pay streak is at any great depth from the 
surface. In this way the complaint is overcome which 
has been so commonly advanced by miners and others 
that in the Yukon several months of the year are lost 
in idleness. Winter usually sets in very soon after the 
middle of September and continues until the begin- 
ning of June, and is decidedly cold. The mercury fre- 
quently falls to 60 degrees below zero, but in the in- 
terior there is so little humidity in the atmosphere that 
the cold is more easily endured than on the coast. In 
the absence of thermometers, miners, it is said, leave 
their 'mercury out all night; when they find it frozen 
solid in the morning they conclude that it is too cold 
to work, and stay at home. The temperature runs to 
great extremes in summer as well as in winter. It is 
quite a common thing for the thermometer to regis- 
ter 100 degrees in the shade." 

There is continuous daylight from the middle of 
June until the early part of August; but in the middle 
of winter there is little more than three hours of partial 
daylight in the twenty-four. Hence constant daylight 
for a portion of the year, and almost total darkness for 
another portion, might very well create doubts in 
one's mind as to what portion of the day in either case 
should be given to sleep. In the summer months it 



PROCESS OF PLACER MINING. QI 

is possible for a miner to put in as many hours as he 
has the power to endure. Constant daylight admits 
of several shifts of men being employed, and in this 
way mining operations may go on continuously. 

In this connection additional reports of the Klon- 
dike country, circulated by returning lucky miners, 
and told in newspapers to fire the spirit of adventure 
in the American people, may be mentioned. This one 
was given out in Chicago in August: 

"One year ago Fred Phiscator was a poor man en- 
gaged in the lumber business at Barodo, Mich. He 
arrived in Chicago on his way home from Alaska. In 
a big red pocketbook which he carried in the inside 
pocket of his vest there reposed a certificate of deposit 
for $120,000, beside which Mr. Phiscator had sufficient 
loose change to keep him from borrowing whenever 
he wanted a cigar. And just as though he had been 
used to counting his money in six figures all his life, 
he remarked that he had refused $200,000 for the claim 
he left behind, and thought it was worth $1,000,000. 
Mr. Phiscator dropped his traveling bag before the 
clerk's desk in the Great Northern hotel and said that 
nothing was too good for him. It is his intention to 
spend the winter with his family and friends and in 
the spring he will lead a party of friends to the scene 
of his fortune making. 

"Air. Phiscator was one of a party of four that fol- 
lowed the discoveries on Bonanza Creek, and he and 
another man located the claims that have been reported 
as being so rich on Eldorado Creek. Mr. Phiscator 
said the party was nearly out of food and was about 
ready to turn back to the nearest trading post when it 
met another party that had more flour that it needed 
and sold his party some. That evening, while the 
cook was preparing supper, Phiscator suggested to an 
old man named Whipple that they go a mile up the 
Klondike and wash a pan of Eldorado Creek dirt. They 
did so, and were amazed when they found between $6 
and $7 in yellow metal in the bottom of the pan. They 



92 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

immediately staked claims and went back and told 
what they had found. The others in the party then 
staked claims and all have become rich. He said: 

" This was a little over a year ago, and in that time 
I have taken out more than $150,000, and have hardly 
made a hole in my claim. In one hole 35 by 50 feet, I 
took out $49,000. Most people I meet have a wrong 
impression of what the claims are, and the reports of 
fabulous wealth being taken out of them are exagger- 
ated. 

" To work a claim a hole about 6 by 3 \ feet, or 
about the size of an ordinary mining shaft, is started 
down. As the ground never thaws out to a depth of 
more than two feet, this is not easy work. As it is not 
brittle, it can not be shot out, so it is necessary to use 
a pick until a certain depth is reached. Then fires are 
built and the ground thawed out. A fire over night 
will soften about three feet of earth. This is taken out 
the next day and another fire built. The rich dirt is at 
bed rock, and after this is reached the fire profess is 
continued, and the excavation is carried on laterally, 
the dirt being taken out to about the height of a man. 
It is necessary to do this work during the winter 
months, for the reason that the gas fumes are so great 
in the summer that it is impossible to work. All the 
earth taken out in the winter is piled up, and when 
summer comes it 4s panned for the gold.' " 

In further confirmation of the contention of the au- 
thor, who has traveled extensively through that re- 
gion, the following additional proof of the existence 
of pay gold on the eastern slopes of the Rockies is 
submitted. The evidence is not the less valuable be- 
cause it comes in a second-hand, or round about way : 

"Tacoma, Wash., Aug. 22. — The next mining ex- 
citement will be on Peace River, in Northwest terri- 
tory. Mining has been carried on there in a slow way 
for years, but discoveries made this summer leave no 
room to doubt that an immense amount of gold will 
be taken out of that river and its tributaries during the 



PROCESS OF PLACER MINING. 93 

next two years. Men who are now taking out gold in 
large quantities there are not trying to create a boom, 
but are quietly sending for their friends to come into 
the country and secure claims. 

"A. D. Kitchen, a prominent mining broker of this 
city, has just returned from British Columbia. At 
Vancouver he met a young man named Johnson, who 
had just come down from Peace River with his part- 
ner, bringing $18,090. A third partner was left at the 
mines. The two came out with part of the season's 
output to secure supplies for the winter. The money 
brought out was placed in a Vancouver bank. Part 
of it was drawn out for the purchase of supplies, which 
were at once shipped to Edmonton, Northwest terri- 
tory, whence they were to be sent to the mines by a 
large pack train. 

"The $18,000 brought out had been cleaned up by 
the three men in three months. They went to Peace 
River early in the spring, and Johnson started 
out in July. Johnson said that all the miners on Peace 
River were making a great deal of money with the 
crudest of appliances. Up to the time he left only 
pans and twelve-foot sluices had been used. Most of 
the miners were not coming out this fall, because it 
was possible to purchase supplies at the trading posts 
of the Hudson's Bay Company near the mouth of the 
river. Johnson toM Mr. Kitchen that if he wanted 
gold all he had to do was to go to Peace River. 

"The Peace River country is reached most easily 
from Edmonton, which is 833 miles from Vancouver, 
being 191 miles north of Calgary, on the Canadian Pa- 
cific Railroad. Fort Chippewyan, on Athabasca Lake, 
at the mouth of Peace River, is reached by taking a 
stage from Edmonton to Athabasca landing, forty 
miles, and thence down Athabasca River and lake by 
boat. Chippewyan is 465 miles from Edmonton. 
Steamboats go up the Peace River for a considerable 
distance. A number of its tributaries, including the 
Loon and Deer rivers, are as rich as the main stream. 



94 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

'The Peace River rises in the eastern slopes of the 
Rocky Mountains, a little north of the center of 'Brit- 
ish Columbia. In the northern continuation of the 
same mountains rise the Klondike, Pelly, Stewart, and 
other gold-bearing tributaries of the Yukon. There 
is this difference, that Peace River rises on the eastern 
slope of the mountains, while the Yukon's tributaries 
rise on the west side. Along Peace River on the north 
are the Reindeer or Caribou mountains, which have 
been found this summer to be rich in gold-bearing 
quartz. 

"Mr. Kitchen found that other miners had recently 
arrived at Vancouver, bringing large amounts of gold 
from Peace River. He is accordingly arranging to 
organize a company which will put steamers on the 
Athabasca River and lake and on Peace River next 
spring, and establish three trading posts. He will go 
to Lincoln, Neb., where he formerly lived, to get part 
of the necessary capital." 

The Edmonton and Athabasca route will not only 
be available for travel to the rich mining areas on the 
eastern slopes of the Rockies — it will be found prefer- 
able to any other in reaching the Klondike territory 
as well. This trail is both shorter — affording a much 
cheaper route — and practicable for the transportation 
of horses, machinery and supplies into the whole 
northwest country, without hardship or serious diffi- 
culty. 



FURS, FISH AND GAME. 95 



CHAPTER XIV. 
FURS, FISH AND GAME OF THE KLONDIKE. 

The silver, gray, black and red fox — Abundance of game — 
The caribou, moose and the grizzly, brown, black and 
silver-tip bears — Salmon and other fish, etc. 

The principal fur procured in the Canadian North- 
west, west of the Rockies and north of the 60th paral- 
lel, which is just now being called the Klondike coun- 
try, are the silver, gray and black fox, the number of 
which bears a greater ratio to the red foxes than in any 
other part of the north. The red fox is, of course, 
very common, and a species called the blue is abundant 
further towards the coast." Marten or sable, and lynx, 
are quite numerous. Otter are far more scarce than 
to the east of the Rockies, and beaver do not exist to 
any extent. It is estimated that the value of the gray 
and black fox skins taken out of the country annually 
more than equals the value of all other furs secured. 

Game is very abundant, but owing to the presence 
of miners most of it has been driven back from the 
rivers occupied by them. The Indians have to ascend 
the tributary streams ten or twenty miles to secure 
furs or game worth going after. Here on the uplands 
are vast herds of caribou, although in some seasons 
they disappear altogether. The Indians slaughter 
them without regard to their meat necessities. Some 
years ago moose were numerous along* the principal 
rivers, but are now seldom seen except at a considera- 
ble distance from the regions occupied by miners. 
Eighteen moose were killed on Coal Creek in one day 
in. 1888. The Indians sell much of this meat to the 
miners. 

There are two species of caribou in the country. 
One — the ordinary kind — is found in most parts of the 



96 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

north. This much resembles and is generally spoken 
of as the reindeer. The other is known as the "Wood 
caribou," being a much larger and more beautiful ani- 
mal. The ordinary caribou runs in herds, often num- 
bering hundreds. They are easily approached and 
may be killed without much difficulty. When the In- 
dians overtake a herd they surround it, gradually driv- 
ing them into a bunch, when the animals, being panic- 
stricken, are slaughtered in a wholesale manner. 

There are four species of bear in this region.. These 
are the grizzly, brown, black, and a small kind called 
the "silver-tip." The latter are of a gray color, and 
are very fierce. There are a few of the common gray 
wolves, but these are seldom met with. The arctic 
rabbit is scarce, except once in seven years, when they 
may be seen in myriads. They are plentiful for about 
four years, and then disappear for about three years. 
The marten is also subject to periodical increase. The 
mountain sheep and mountain goats exist everywhere 
in this country, but are most numerous on the moun- 
tain sides. 

Birds are rarely seen. A few ravens are met with 
along the rivers. They are very active and noisy on 
stormy days. Once in awhile the magpie and white- 
headed eagle are seen. Partridges are very scarce, 
but ptarmigan, or the arctic partridge, is abundant. 
Wild geese and ducks are plentiful in season. The 
ducks abound in endless variety. 

Fish are numerous in all the streams. Lake trout 
are caught in most of the lakes. They take a troll bait 
readily. Salmon abound in all the principal streams 
flowing into the Yukon. One can easily trace their 
presence by the slight ripple they make on the sur- 
face, and they can be taken by gently placing a scoop 
net in their way and lifting them out when they en- 
ter it. 

Indians inhabit the country, but the tribes are not 
very numerous, nor of any special interest. 



IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 97 

CHAPTER XV. 

IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 

Verified reports of rich gold discoveries and the arrival of 
the precious metal in this country likely to send a vast 
population from the United States to the Klondike 
regions — Might possibly lead to war between England 
and this country— The feeling in London — Chicago and 
London competitors — Routes for railroad communica- 
tion with the upper Yukon — The boundary question 
practically settled. 

It is not impossible that the great influx of citizens 
of the United States to the Klondike country, which 
lies almost wholly within British territory, may lead to 
serious international complications. There will be in 
the neighborhood of 10,000 Americans in that region 
by the spring of 1898, and the number is likely to be 
quadrupled before the beginning of 1899. Some au- 
thorities estimate that 250,000, all told, will have gone 
into the country before the beginning of the 20th cen- 
tury. 

The excitement over the rich gold fields there is 
being daily augmented by the return of miners with 
bags of coarse gold and nuggets. Nearly all of these 
pioneers of the new country bring fortunes, of greater 
or less dimensions, with them, and leave behind them 
gold claims worth millions, to which they propose to 
return in the spring. Reports of this kind, all fully 
verified, cannot fail to cause many thousands to leave 
the United States for the Golden North. Reports 
similar to the following are now, August, 1897, of al- 
most daily occurrence: 

"Tacoma, Wash, Aug. 21. — T. P. Riley, formerly sec- 
tion foreman of the Northern Pacific at Alderton, 
twelve miles from Tacoma, returned to-day from the 
Klondike and weighed out in front of a Ledger re- 



98 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

porter $85,000 in gold nuggets, the result of two years 
of hardships and toil in frozen regions of the North. 

"His partners, Flannigan and O'Brien, have an 
equal share with him, and are now speeding across the 
continent to Pennsylvania with $85,000 apiece of Klon- 
dike gold. Mr. Riley and his party left the Klondike 
on July 6, and were twenty-three days at Dyea. They 
carried their golden gleanings themselves, and, to 
evade notoriety, told no one of their good fortune. 
'All of my life, I have had to work like a slave for small 
wages,' said Mr. Riley, 'but I am now independent for 
life. Two years ago I was a section foreman on the 
Northern Pacific, twelve miles from Tacoma. I was 
a hard drinker, and for that I was discharged. It was 
the best thing ever happened to me. I went to Alas- 
ka, and was near Circle City when the richness of the 
Klondike was discovered. I at once went over, and 
with my partners (Flannigan and O'Brien) took up two 
claims. We worked all winter, and when the clean-up 
came in the spring we had $85,000 apiece. Here is 
mine. How does it look? 

" 'It means no more hard work for me. I have all I 
want, and more too. I am going to Ireland to see 
some of my relatives, and next March I will return to 
Tacoma, buy me a good big farm, and live for the rest 
of my days on what it will bring in. I left the Klondike 
July 6th, and after a rapid though hard trip we landed 
at Dyea on July 29th. Thousands of rich strikes have 
been made there this spring and summer, and I would 
not take $5,000,000 for my share in our two claims. 
There is gold enough in the district to supply the world 
and make everybody rich. A man who never had a 
pick or shovel in his hand in his life stands just as good 
a chance as an old, experienced miner. When I left, 
there were nearly six tons of gold waiting to be shipped 
down on the Portland, at St. Michaels, which I heard 
will be here in a few days. On Stewart River, 180 
miles from the Klondike diggings, rich strikes have 
been made, and the people of the district are wild with 



IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 99 

excitement and many are rushing to the new diggings. 
Dawson City is now quite a town, and has about 3,500 
people. The best buildings are given up to saloons 
and gambling houses, and every one gambles and 
drinks. Though the country is rich and the strikes 
are numerous, I fear for the thousands who are trying 
to rush over the passes at this season of the year. They 
will many of them fail in their attempt, and will leave 
their bones along the trail. I would advise all who in- 
tend going to wait until spring and then go in over the 
ice or Hudson's Bay route. If they go over the latter, 
let them take plenty of horses and cattle with them and 
they will have no trouble.' " 

Mr. Riley talks about six tons of gold. That ap- 
pears to be fabulous, but it is impressed upon the 
minds of the people as true ; for word came from Wash- 
ington on even date with the above that when the 
steamer Portland comes out into Bering Sea with her 
load of virgin gold, on her last trip, she will be con- 
voyed to a place of safety by one of the revenue cutters 
belonging to the United States government, now on 
duty in northern waters. It is certain that instructions 
were sent to Captain Tuttle, who commands the Bear, 
to act as convoy to the treasure steamer. 

These facts demonstrate that the reports of the Klon- 
dike gold diggings are not too highly colored. It is 
probably nearer the truth that more gold came out of 
the country in 1897 than there is any report of, for 
the reason that many of the lucky miners are very 
reticent about giving an account of their successes. 

From English reports recently printed it is evident 
that there is much anxiety felt in London as to the 
future of the Golden Northwest, lest it should in some 
unforeseen manner fall under the jurisdiction of the 
United States government. This leads us to a few 
words of history. 

It was a happy day, or will prove such for perhaps 
millions of souls, when, in 1867, Seward, backed by 
Sumner — acting for the government of the United 



ICO THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

States — purchased Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. 
The purchase was generally ridiculed at the time, and 
the price paid was characterized as extravagant. No 
one has yet given a true reason why, on the part of the 
United States or that of Russia, the purchase and sale 
were made. Many explanations have been made, but 
this is the true one: 

England and Russia were the only nations on earth 
possessing information as to the value of the resources 
of the great north. The former received its knowledge 
through the officers, traders and factors of the Hud- 
son's Bay Company. When Beaconsfield realized the 
situation, he determined on the consolidations of the 
British possessions in North America. The late Sir 
John A. Macdonald, of Canada, was his chief lieuten- 
ant in the work. First came the confederation of the 
four eastern Canadian provinces. Then British Co- 
lumbia was added, and the whole Northwest territory 
was purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company. 

Meanwhile Beaconsfield was teaching out for Alas- 
ka, but the relations between Russia and England 
were sufficiently strained in 1867 to enable Seward, 
who was watching the deal closely, to step in and make 
the purchase. In this way the United States obtained 
a foothold in the north. The wisdom of this piece of 
statecraft is only beginning to be understood. In the 
years to come it will be seen that the absorption of the 
whole Dominion of Canada by the United States, 
which must come as a legitimate result of development 
on this continent, will be accomplished largely through 
the good offices of Alaska. 

It is impossible to obtain a proper conception of the 
great north by confining one's studies to Alaska prop- 
er. The gold diggers on the upper Yukon find them- 
selves on both sides of the 141st degree, which is the 
international boundary line. The Northwest Terri- 
tory, and indeed the whole north of this continent, is 
one and inseparable. Political divisions cut but little 
figure, after all, in the development of natural re- 



IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. IOI 

sources in a vast country which nature has not been 
pleased to divide. 

It is a fact that the greater part of the Klondike gold 
fields are in British territory. So are Dawson City 
and Fort Cudahy. So are the rich, illimitable areas of 
park country — lying as low as 400 to 600 feet above the 
level of the sea — which stretch out from Lake Atha- 
basca, westward along the Peace and Athabasca rivers 
to the foothills of the Rockies ; northward to and along 
the upper waters of the mighty Mackenzie, to the 64th 
parallel; eastward to the head waters of the great 
Churchill; and southward, including the whole valley 
of the Peace River, stretching away to the north 
branch of the Saskatchewan. 

This vast basin, many times greater than that of the 
Mississippi, in which all the states northwest of the 
Ohio and southeast of the Missouri could be dupli- 
cated, is sufficiently broad and productive to furnish 
the world's population with bread and meat for many 
centuries to come. 

What then of political boundary lines? Canadian 
enterprise is too feeble and British push too slow to 
populate and develop such a country. It is left to the 
people of the United States to go in and possess the 
land, and as soon as they become informed of the 
boundless wealth there — awaiting the pick and the 
pan, the crusher and the stamp-mill, the rancher and 
the husbandman — they will go; and they will carry 
the stars and stripes with them. This will seal the po- 
litical destiny of the great far Northwest. 

Before another generation has risen, it is possible 
that the flag of the United States will be flying not only 
from Sitka and St. Michaels, not only from Juneau and 
Circle City, but above all the mining camps and trad- 
ing posts from Rampart House to the valley of the 
Peace River and the western shores of Hudson's Bay. 

It is significant that the national government has 
determined to establish an experimental farm to test 
the productive qualities of the soil in the valleys of 



102 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Alaska. This is the beginning of the end. There can 
be but one result of such an undertaking. The great 
value and productiveness of the soil of the north is 
already known to Great Britain, and will soon become 
equally well understood and appreciated by the peo- 
ple of the United States. Who can foretell the out- 
come? It may be a quarrel over the sealing grounds; 
and it is safe to say that nothing could familiarize the 
people of this country with the resources of the great 
north so effectively as marching an army of a few hun- 
dred thousand people across the 49th parallel over the 
branches of the Saskatchewan, through the illimitable 
park country of the Peace River valley, across the 
head waters of the Mackenzie and the summit of the 
Rockies, and thence to the Klondike. 

Secretary Sherman has already sounded the key- 
note, and the British press is talking back impudently. 
These mutterings may ultimately culminate in a storm 
over the possession of the great northwest which, what- 
ever other result might follow, would, more than any- 
thing else, tend to populate it and develop its vast re- 
sources. If we are ever going to have a war with Eng- 
land, as a solution of the hard times problem, or other- 
wise, by all means let it be a war for the possession of 
the great north; for that would advertise the country 
to the world, and send hundreds and thousands from 
the overcrowded cities of this country to find happy 
homes of peace and plenty in that region. 

But it is more agreeable and, of course, much more 
reasonable to think of the colonization and develop- 
ment of the Golden North by peaceful methods. In- 
ternational difficulties likely to be met with will doubt- 
less be solved peacefully, and the vast resources of 
the north land appropriated to the profit of both the 
countries immediately interested. 

In a recent newspaper cablegram from London it is 
stated: "The Marquis of Lome, in a signed state- 
ment, expresses the confidence of British statesmen in 
the ability of the Canadian government to retain their 



IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 103 

supremacy and maintain their hold of Klondike." At 
the same time there is no denying that a feeling of un- 
easiness begins to be felt in London over the liability 
of conflict between Canadian and American interests. 
Englishmen believe Canada should control the Klon- 
dike and would support Canada in any restrictions 
upon American enterprise, no matter how severe. The 
opinion is commonly expressed that Canadians should 
do precisely what the Boers did at Johannesburg, hold 
the mines and tax the Uitlanders, not seeing that this 
would give the Americans justification for a Jameson 
raid. But the inherent weakness of Canada is felt in 
the remoteness of the diggings and the necessity of 
reaching them through American territory." 

The last sentence of the above is absolutely ridicu- 
lous. There is no necessity for the British or the 
Canadians reaching the country through American 
territory. They have a far shorter and better route 
by way of the Canadian Pacific Railway to Edmonton, 
thence overland through the Peace River country and 
across the head waters of the Mackenzie, as before 
stated. The report continues : 

"Englishmen admit the Klondike is now controlled 
by Americans, but these are described in papers here 
as plunderers, ruffians and outlaws. The attempts of 
the Canadian authorities to enforce the new and spe- 
cial taxes upon Americans going to the Klondike are 
described as maintaining order and enforcing law. 
Fears are expressed that Canadian customs officers at- 
tempting to collect taxes at Skaguay will be wiped out 
by the Americans, and that the few Canadian officers 
at Dawson will be laughed at and defied and the stars 
and stripes raised by mob over the Klondike region. 

"In that event it is said a strong force will "be sent at 
once to the diggings, for England wants gold and 
hates to see it go to the United States. Any conflict 
or bloodshed between Americans and Canadian offi- 
cers would at once raise the most serious complica- 
tions. 



104 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

"Many Englishmen fear the proximity of the Klon- 
dike to the Alaskan boundary, the sensational wealth 
of the mines, and the mad rush now being made, will 
end in war between England and the United States. 
One London paper has already announced that Ameri- 
can politicians and journalists are now scheming to 
bring on war through the Klondike with a view of an- 
nexing Canada, and warns readers to be prepared for 
violent exhibitions of ill feeling. 

"Shrewd observers here, however, say England 
would put up with almost anything rather than incur 
the risks of such a conflict, with the inevitable loss of 
Canada. London speculators are looking enviously 
toward the Klondike, but think Wall street will have 
the first picking and that England will get left in the 
rake-off. Nevertheless, many Klondike schemes are 
being floated and the newspapers are printing full ac- 
counts of the new diggings." 

Chicago, more than any other city in the world, is 
deeply interested in this continuation of the northwest- 
ward march of civilization and material progress. This 
city must reach the Klondike by rail, not only for the 
tons of yellow metal which lie hidden in the sands and 
rocks along the gulches and hills bordering the tribu- 
taries of the upper Yukon, but also for the measureless 
bread and meat resources of the boundless country 
which lie between, and which spreads out in rich, broad 
valleys. . 

There should be no delay in this undertaking. Na- 
ture has already provided a highway for our British 
competitor. London and Chicago are the natural 
competitors for the boundless wealth of the great 
north. At first sight it may appear that London is so 
much farther from the Klondike than Chicago that 
competition is out of the question. Not so. The 
Hudson's Bay route is not new to the world of enter- 
prise. It is only 1,500 miles from Churchill on the 
west shore of Hudson's Bay to the upper Yukon, and 
the highest elevation of the Rockies to be crossed is 



IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. 105 

scarcely over 2,000 feet. Compare this with the 
Rocky Mountain grades of the Canadian Pacific, the 
Northern Pacific, the Union Pacific and the Southern 
Pacific, and the advantages of the more northern route 
are wonderful to contemplate. 

A railroad from Churchill to the Klondike would 
pass through the great valleys of the Peace River to the 
upper Mackenzie, and might diverge to the north, 
from the neighborhood of Lake Athabaska, reaching 
the head waters of the Yukon with even a less elevation 
than 2,000 feet. 

The distance from Churchill — where there is one 
of the finest harbors in the world, open the year round 
— to Liverpool, by way of Hudson's Bay and Strait, is 
only 2,960, and as transportation by water is so much 
cheaper than that by rail, it will be seen that, for 
seven months in the year at least, England could tap 
the resources of the great Northwest almost as effec- 
tively as could Chicago by rail across the plains. 

At this point a suggestion to the capitalists of Chi- 
cago may be ventured. While companies are being 
incorporated for the purposes of carrying supplies to 
the Klondike gold fields, and of developing the gold 
mines located there, this question of a railroad from 
Chicago to the head waters of the Yukon through 
American and Canadian territory should not be left 
without solution. Capital and push will build a rail- 
way from Chicago to Bering Sea, over a route passing 
through the richest country on the face of the earth. 
There are not more than 500 miles of territory in the 
whole distance that is not either habitable and pro- 
ductive, or rich in gold fields. Congress would no 
doubt respond by assisting such an enterprise both 
with money and an Alaskan land grant. Such an en- 
terprise would necessarily be of an international char- 
acter. However, Chicago has vast interests at stake 
in the solution of this problem, and those who become 
the pioneers in such an undertaking will not only reap 
material rewards but write their names in history as 



106 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

founders of a new empire, besides opening the way to 
relief for the hundreds of thousands of the unemployed 
and suffering of our own population. 

The international boundary question in the far 
Northwest is practically settled. General Duffield, of 
the coast and geodetic survey of the United States 
government, recently said: 

"I do not believe that when the matter of the bound- 
ary line between the two countries is definitely settled 
there will be any appreciable change from what is 
down on the map at present. There certainly will not 
be as far as regards the Klondike region, which is be- 
yond all manner of dispute in the British Northwest 
territory. 

"Dawson City is a hundred miles or more east of 
the 141st meridian, which is the boundary line. Mount 
St. Elias is near the intersection of the ten marine 
league line with the 141st meridian. To be exact, the 
summit is 140 degrees and 55 minutes, or 5 minutes, 
on the Canadian side, which in that latitude represents 
two and one-half miles. But on the southern side it 
is only twenty-eight and one half-miles from the coast, 
which brings it inside of the ten league line, or thirty 
mile limit, and one and one-half miles on American 
soil. 

"At Forty Mile Creek our survey agrees with that 
of the Canadian survey under Ogilvie within fourteen 
hundredths of a second, which in that latitude repre- 
sents six and a half feet. The Canadian line steals the 
six and a half feet from us. Crossing the Yukon 
River the difference in the two surveys is fourteen sec- 
onds, which in that latitude represents 300 feet. Ac- 
cording to the line of Ogilvie, the Canadian govern- 
ment surveyor, we gain 300 feet on the British side. 

"We are anxious to compare the two lines at the 
Porcupine River crossing, which is several miles fur- 
ther north, but the Canadian government has given 
us no notice of where it has fixed its line there. I do 
not suppose that the difference will be worthy of note." 



IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL QUESTIONS. IO7 

General Duffield added that if there is any dispute 
between the two countries over the boundary line it 
will be in regard to the ten league coast line in the 
southern portion of Alaska, as that is a question which 
admits of considerable diversity of opinion. 



108 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE GREAT FERTILE NORTH. 

A boundless territory of inexhaustible bread, meat and 
dairy capabilities — Coal and other resources — How the 
lower levels are sheltered from storms and cold. 

We now come to make some observations on that 
vast portion of the far northwest lying east of the 
Rocky Mountains and north of the 6oth parallel, and 
between it and the Arctic Circle. This area, including 
the upper Klondike country, contains nearly 1,000,000 
square miles, rich in timber, furs, fish, gold and min- 
erals generally, with vast areas of good coal. 

To the south of this district, and on the west, lies 
British Columbia, bounded on the north by the 60th 
parallel. While further east, and to the south, are the 
provisional territories of Athabasca, in the Peace Riv- 
er region, with 104,500 square miles; Alberta, with 
106,100 square miles; Saskatchewan, with 107,092 
square miles; Assiniboia, with 90,000 square miles; 
and to the east of this, the district of Keewathi, with 
282,000 square miles ; and to the south of the latter is 
the province of Manitoba, with 73,956 square miles. 
British Columbia has an area of 383,300 square miles. 

The territory east of Keewatin and south of Hud- 
son's Bay, known as the Eastern District, contains 
196,800 square miles. The Hudson's Bay territory 
proper contains 358,000 square miles. The river ba- 
sins which compose this great north country have al- 
ready been quite fully described. These areas including 
the older provinces of Canada are equally as large as 
the whole of Europe and about 500,000 square miles 
larger than the United States without Alaska, and of 
about equal extent to the United States including 
Alaska. 



THE GREAT FERTILE NORTH. IO9 

In order to complete our observations on the entire 
north country, we must look with some care upon the 
several divisions above named, commencing with 
Manitoba, which, however, is so well known that it will 
not be necessary to dwell at any length on that part of 
the country. Manitoba is situated in the very center 
of the continent, being midway between the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans on the east and west, and the Arctic 
Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico on the north and south. 
This province is now well settled and enjoys a high 
grade of schools, colleges, churches and a well devel- 
oped social life. The climate is warm in summer and 
cold in winter. The summer mean is 65 to 70 degrees, 
about the same as that of the state of New York, but 
in winter the thermometer falls below zero, frequently 
from 30 to 40 degrees. However, the atmosphere is 
bright and dry, and the cold is not so unpleasant as 
that of less cold temperatures in the humid districts 
farther to the south. It may be noticed here that the 
isothermal line running from Winnipeg, the capital of 
Manitoba, bears duly northwest until Fort Simpson, 
on the Mackenzie River, is reached. Indeed, it may 
be said that there are higher temperatures, in the cold 
season, farther to the northwest than at Winnipeg. 
The country is one of the healthiest on the globe, and 
is exceedingly pleasant to live in. There are no dis- 
eases whatever arising out of the climate. Occasion- 
ally there are summer frosts, but these do not prove 
severe oftener than once in seven years. 

Very little snow falls on the prairies — and this is all 
a prairie country for thousands of miles in every direc- 
tion where the soil has been developed — the depth of 
the snow ranging from six to twelve and eighteen 
inches. Native horses can graze out of doors all win- 
ter, which they do by pawing the snow off the grass. 
The snow disappears and plowing begins about the 
middle of April, sometimes earlier. The Red River, 
which flows from the interior of Minnesota northward 
to Lake Winnipeg, opens about the same time. There 



HO THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

is practically no spring. Winter bursts into summer 
during the month of April. The summer months in- 
clude May, June, July, August and September. Au- 
tumn lasts until the end of November, when the regu- 
lar frosts set in. Harvest work is always completed 
by the middle of September. 

The soil is a rich, deep black mold or loam resting 
on a thick, very tenacious subsoil of clay. It is held to 
be, together with that of the vast regions northwest of 
it, the richest soil in the world, and is especially adapt- 
ed to the growth of wheat. This wheat brings a higher 
price in the world's markets than that grown in any 
other portion of North America. Water is almost 
everywhere found by digging wells of moderate depth. 
The rivers and coulees are also available for water sup- 
ply during the spring and early summer. Rain falls 
freely during the spring, but the summer and autumn 
are generally dry. 

Agricultural pursuits are highly developed, in Mani- 
toba, there being in the present season about 2,500,000 
acres of land devoted to the production of wheat, oats, 
barley, flax, rye, pease, corn, potatoes and roots. The 
yield for the present year is not yet known, but it is 
estimated to be: Wheat, 40,000,000 bushels; oats, 
25,000,000 bushels; barley, 6,000,000 bushels; flax, 
1,300,000 bushels; rye, 70,000,000 bushels; pease, 30,- 
000,000 bushels. The potato and root crops have also 
been very successful. The inhabitants of that province 
are confident of a great future for their country from 
an agricultural point of view. Small fruits, such as 
strawberries, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, cran- 
berries, plums, etc., are plentiful, and wild grapes are 
very common. Stock raising has been carried on in 
Manitoba very successfully, but is conducted on a 
much larger scale in the districts farther to the west. 
This province has railway communication with the At- 
lantic and Pacific oceans and all parts of the country 
to the south of it. 

Very much that has been said respecting the soil, 



I 



THE GREAT FERTILE NORTH. Ill 

climate and productions of Manitoba apply equally to 
almost all the northwest country east of the Rocky 
Mountains. To the north and west of that province 
extends the region known as the North- West Terri- 
tories of Canada. It is bounded on the south by the 
49th parallel, which divides central Canada from the 
United States. A remarkable feature of this great 
area is its division into three distinct prairie plains or 
plateaus* as they are generally called The first of 
these is known as the Red River Valley and Lake 
Winnipeg Plateau. The average height above the 
level of the sea of this district is about 800 feet. At the 
boundary line it is 1,000 feet. The second plateau or 
steppe has an average altitude of 1,600 feet, and a 
width of about 250 miles. It is a rich, undulating, 
park-like country. It includes the Assiniboine and 
Qu'Appelle valleys. The third plateau, or steppe, be- 
gins on the boundary line at the 104th degree, where 
it has an elevation of about 2,000 feet, and extends 
west for 465 miles, to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, 
where it has an altitude of 4,200 feet, making an aver- 
age height above the sea of 3,000 feet. A fourth vast 
prairie steppe, larger than the other three together, lies 
north and northwest of the last two named and in- 
cludes the Peace River and upper Mackenzie basins. 
This region is still more fertile and better adapted to 
stock raising than that immediately to the south of it. 
This is because its surface does not rise above sea level 
more than from 400 to 800 feet. 

It is an ascertained fact in meteorological phenom- 
ena that the cold storm-waves which rise in the arctic 
pass over the lower levels to burst in tempestuous fury 
and low temperatures on approaching the watershed 
near the 49th parallel, or the foothills of the Rockies. 



112 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

CANADIAN NORTHWEST. 

Districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Atha- 
baska — The vast fertile plains to the north — Greatest 
agricultural and stock raising region on earth. 

In this connection we continue our observations on 
the prairie and plain regions of the Canadian North- 
west lying east of the Rockies, before covering the 
overland routes through the mountains to the Klon- 
dike country, north of the 6oth parallel, before re- 
ferred to. 

The District of Assiniboia comprises an area, as 
already stated, of 90,000 square miles. The valley of 
the Qu'Appelle is in the district of Assiniboia, being on 
the second plateau or steppe of the continent, reaching 
from the Red River to the Rocky Mountains. This 
valley is a favored part of the Northwest, and settle- 
ment in it is proceeding with surprising rapidity. The 
transcontinental road traverses the whole breadth of 
the district, entering it a few miles east of Moosomin, 
about 200 miles west of Winnipeg. This rapidly ris- 
ing town lies in the center of a highly favored district 
where mixed farming vies with wheat growing for the 
place of first interest. The railroad affords opportun- 
ity for the location of numerous market towns, advan- 
tage of which has already been taken at many points. 
In districts at some distance from the railroad, the 
ranching industry is less impeded by the pursuits of 
agriculture, and a large number of Assiniboia-fed ani- 
mals now find their way each season to the English 
market. The Manitoba and Northwestern road en- 
ters the territories in the northern part of Assiniboia 
and runs through a prosperous district, the principal 
points in which are the towns of Saltcoats and York- 



CANADIAN NORTHWEST. 113 

ton. Railroad communication is also provided for the 
settlers in the southern part of the district by the Souris 
branch of the Canadian Pacific, which joins the north- 
ern and southern extensions — more familiarly known 
as the "Soo" line — at Estevan. This latter road gives 
a direct means of communication with many of the 
large centers of the United States. At several points 
on this latter road coal is mined, which, thpugh it is 
not of high quality, effectually settles the fuel problem, 
as it gives excellent satisfaction — both for cooking and 
heating purposes — when used with suitable appliances, 
while the low cost of production keeps its price within 
reasonable limits. In common with other places in 
the Northwest Territories, the dairy industry is taking 
a leading part in the up-building of Assiniboia, there 
being but few settled localities that are not within easy 
reach of a creamery or cheese factory. At present the 
principal market for these products is found in the 
mountains of British Columbia, but not a little is 
shipped to points across the Pacific, Japan, especially, 
being a large consumer of prairie-made butter. 

At present Moose Jaw, the northern terminus of the 
"Soo" line, may be described as being the western limit 
of the purely agricultural area of Assiniboia, the whole 
country west of this point being, in the main, devoted 
to pastoral pursuits. The western part of Assiniboia, 
like the southern part of Alberta, bordering on the 
arid regions of the continent, is but sub-humid, and its 
rainfall, though admirably suited to a grazing country, 
is not at all times sufficient to produce cereal and root 
crops in such abundance as is done elsewhere in the 
territories where the natural conditions are more fa- 
vorable. But the cattle of these western plains fully 
demonstrate that the ability of the country to sustain 
animal life has not departed with the buffalo that, not 
many years ago, roamed these regions. The district 
is everywhere covered with a short, thick, rich grass, 
which is unusually nutritious. Towards the middle 
of summer the grass presents to the eye a dried and 



114 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

burned appearance, but is in reality only cured, and 
retains all its natural sustenance. In this condition it 
is devoured by animals with avidity, and they fatten 
upon it to a surprising degree. The principal points 
in the western part of Assiniboia open for grazing 
leases lie in the hills to the south of the railroad, and 
are to be reached from all points between Swift Cur- 
rent and Medicine Hat. 

The Dominion Experimental Farm for the North- 
west Territories is located at Indian Head in Eastern 
Assiniboia, where extensive experiments in the selec- 
tion of horned cattle, horses, sheep, pigs, grains, roots, 
trees and grasses, suitable to the climate are continu- 
ally being made, and much of the improvement to be 
noticed in the methods of agriculture in the Territories 
may be directly traced to the experimental work done 
at this noteworthy institution. 

The seat of the Territorial Government is established 
at Regina, where the Lieutenant-Governor and mem- 
bers of the local administration reside. This place is 
also the headquarters of the Indian Department for 
Manitoba and the Northwest, and also of the North- 
west Mounted Police. From Regina a railway runs 
north to Prince Albert on the Saskatchewan, which at 
present forms the only means of rapid communication 
between this district and the markets of the world. 

The district of the Saskatchewan lies to the north of 
Assiniboia and the province of Manitoba, and com- 
prises about 107,000 square miles. But a small portion 
of the district has, as yet, been opened up by settlement, 
which has mainly sought the banks of both branches 
of the river from which the district takes its name. The 
oldest settlements in the Northwest are to be found 
on the Saskatchewan, which for many years formed the 
highway along which the furs exported by the Hud- 
son's Bay Company from the districts to the far north- 
west were carried. Notable among these are the set- 
tlements of Prince Albert and Battleford, which latter 
place was for a number of years the seat of the Terri- 






CANADIAN NORTHWEST. 115 

torial Government, but, on the construction of the 
- Canadian Pacific Railroad, it was deemed advisable to 
remove the departmental officials to a point nearer the 
railroad. 

On account of its present difficulties of access, this 
district is not filling up so rapidly as the neighboring 
districts of Assiniboia and Alberta, but its immense 
resources are not altogether overlooked by new set- 
tlers, and a steady growth of population is reported. 
The Manitoba and Northwestern road is chartered to 
build to Prince Albert, and other roads are projected 
to various points on the Saskatchewan River, which, 
when completed, will open up a district of marvelous 
fertility. At present the only means of access to this 
district by railway is by the Qu'Appelle, Long Lake 
and Saskatchewan road, which runs into Prince Albert 
from Regina, but other parts of the district are easily 
reached by means of well-equipped stage lines. Set- 
tlement in this district preceded railroad construction 
in the Northwest by a number of years, and there are 
to-day probably no more prosperous and satisfied peo- 
ple in the country than those who thus braved the 
vicissitudes and trials of frontier life. These, however, 
are now almost altogether obviated, and the new- 
comer who takes up land in any portion of this dis- 
trict will find himself within reach of all the comforts 
and most of the luxuries of life. 

In addition to the older towns of Battleford and 
Prince Albert, bright settlements are springing up at 
Jackfish Lake, Turtle Lake, Duck Lake, Shell River, 
Rosthern, Stony Creek, Carlton, Carrot River, Kinis- 
tino, Birch Hills, The Forks, St. Laurent, St. Louis 
DeLangevin and other places. In all these neighbor- 
hoods there are still large tracts open to the home- 
seeker on the usual government terms of 160 acres free 
to any settler who takes up the land to live on it and 
cultivate it. 

The principal crops are wheat, oats, barley and roots, 
which are raised successfully and in abundance. The 



Il6 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

average yield of wheat (red fyfe) is about 30 bushels 
to the acre in ordinary seasons, from the sowing of one 
to one and a half bushels. Oats give a twenty-five fold 
increase. Though the district has proved an admira- 
ble one for the cultivation of barley, yet the small de- 
mand for this cereal has hitherto kept its production 
in the background. It being necessary at times to 
provide food and shelter for stock in winter, ani- 
mals succeed better in the hands of the farmer than 
of the rancher. For herds of from 200 to 400 head no 
portion of the Territories offers better openings, but 
the farmer who has his 160-acre farm well stocked suc- 
ceeds equally well with his ambitious neighbor. 

The Saskatchewan district answers all the require- 
ments of a good dairy district, pure water, cool nights 
and rich grasses. Every few miles there are streams 
fed by living springs, all tributary to the main river; 
while large lakes of fresh water are to be found in all 
directions. The whole of the district is well wooded, 
and the park-like character of the scenery has been 
spoken of in appreciative terms by travelers of all 
classes. 

The climate of the Saskatchewan district is pleasant 
during nearly every portion of the year. Occasional 
storms occur in winter, but, speaking generally, the 
weather, even during the coldest periods of winter, is 
pleasant. The summer temperature averages about 60 
degrees, the numberless lakes and vast water stretches 
probably accounting for this equability of tempera- 
ture. The tenderest of garden produce, such as melons, 
cucumbers, pumpkins, squash, corn, tomatoes and 
beans are grown every year in the open air successfully, 
which is sufficient proof of the immunity of the district 
from summer frosts. 

The sportsman will find this whole region a con- 
tinual charm. Fish are caught in nearly all the lakes 
and rivers, while the prairie and woods teem with 
feathered game and deer of all descriptions. 

The District of Alberta comprises an area of about 



CANADIAN NORTHWEST. 117 

106,000 square miles. It is bounded on the south by 
the international boundary; on the east by the districts 
of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan; on the west by the 
province of British Columbia, at the summits of the 
Rocky Mountains; and on the north by the eighteenth 
correction line, which is near the fifty-fifth parallel of 
latitude. 

Nature has been lavish in its gifts to Alberta. A 
great portion of the district, being immediately related 
to the Rocky Mountains, has scenery of magnificent 
beauty, and the numerous cold rivers and streams 
which flow into it from the mountains are as clear and 
blue as the sky above them, and abound with mag- 
nificent trout. 

The great natural beauties of Alberta suggest that 
these foothills and spurs of the Rocky Mountains will 
be the favorite resort of tourists and health-seekers, 
when the eastern plains shall have received their popu- 
lation of millions. This district may also be said to 
be pre-eminently the dairy region of America. Its 
cold, clear streams and rich and luxuriant grasses 
make it a very paradise for cattle. This is at present 
the ranch country. Numerous ranches have been 
started in the southern half of Alberta, both for horses 
and neat cattle, which have already been developed 
into great importance. Experience has proved that 
with good management the cattle thrive well in the 
winter, the percentage of loss being much less than 
was estimated when the ranches were undertaken. 
There is in these enterprises the commencement of 
great industries, and they are now sending cattle to the 
eastern markets, and to those of Europe, by the ten 
thousand head. Sheep thrive exceptionally well in 
this district, as they do, in fact, all over the northwest. 

The census returns of 1891 showed that horses over 
three years old numbered 20,704; colts and fillies, 11,- 
266; milk cows, 10,785; other horned cattle, 134,064; 
sheep, 16,057; an d swine, 5,103. In the three provis- 
ional-districts of Alberta, Assiniboia and Saskatchewan 



Il8 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the increase of live stock in 1891 was 220,400 over 
1885. It is not only in agricultural resources that the 
district of Alberta is rich. There are in it the greatest 
extent of coal fields known in the world. The Rocky 
Mountains and their foothills contain a world of miner- 
als yet to be explored, comprising iron, gold, silver, 
galena, and copper. Large petroleum deposits are 
known to exist. Immense supplies of timber may also 
be mentioned among the riches of Alberta, and these 
are found in such positions as to be easily workable in 
the valleys of the numerous streams flowing through 
the foothills of the Rocky Mountains into the great 
Saskatchewan. 

The* climate of Alberta has features peculiarly its 
own. In winter it is liable to remarkable alterations. 
When the wind blows from the Pacific Ocean, and this 
is the prevailing wind, the weather becomes mild and 
the snow rapidly disappears. When, however, it 
blows from the north over the plains, the weather be- 
comes very cold, the thermometer sometimes going 
down to 30 degrees below zero. In summer there 
is liability to frosts, but they are generally local, and 
do not discourage the settlers. Calgary, the chief town 
in Alberta, is advancing with very rapid strides. Many 
substantial and really fine buildings have been and are 
being erected. It is beautifully situated at the con- 
fluence of the Bow and Elbow rivers. It is very thriv- 
ing, does a large business, and commands a beautiful 
view of the Rocky Mountains. The other towns are 
Lethbridge, connected by railway with the Canadian 
Pacific line, where coal mines are being worked; Mac- 
leod, a ranching center; Banff, in the recently formed 
National Park, near which anthracite coal is being 
mined, and where the famous sulphur springs are 
found ; and Edmonton, which is the center of the oldest 
settlement in the district. 

The District of Athabaska comprises an area of 
105,000 square miles, and is bounded on the south by 
the district of Alberta; on the east by the line between 



CANADIAN NORTHWEST. 119 

the 10th and nth ranges — west of the 4th meridian — 
of the Dominion lands system of survey, until, in pro- 
ceeding northwards, that line intersects the Athabasca 
River; then by that river and Athabasca Lake and 
Slave River to the intersection of this line by the north- 
ern boundary of the district, which is to be the thirty- 
second correction line of the Dominion lands township 
system, and is very near the sixtieth parallel of north 
latitude; and on the west by the province of British 
Columbia. 

This district also has vast resources, but, being yet, 
from its northern position, out of the range of im- 
mediate settlement, its riches in agricultural and 
stock-raising capabilities, and its excellent climate are 
known only to explorers and surveyors. 

But even to the north of this provisional district, in 
the broad Peace River Valley, and alluvial plains of 
the upper Mackenzie, is a still greater country in ex- 
tent and resources. 

Two new provisional districts or territories have re- 
cently been erected in the far northwest by the Ca- 
nadian government. The first is that called Mackenzie, 
lying to the north of Athabasca, and extending west- 
ward to the summit of the Rockies. The second is 
called Yukon, and extends westward from the sum- 
mit of the Rockies to the 141st degree of longitude, 
and northward from the northern boundary of British 
Columbia. 



120 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
RESOURCES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

Excellent climate — Abundance of coal — Gold in inexhaust- 
ible quantities— Iron, copper, galena, mercury, plati- 
num, plumbago, mica, salt and many other valuable 
deposits— Progress of the mines. 

And now a few words as to British Columbia. This 
province extends about £00 miles from south to north 
and nearly 500 from west to east — an area of more 
than 350,000 square miles. It is separated from the 
rest of Canada by the Rocky Mountains, while the 
Pacific Ocean bounds it on the west, except for nearly 
300 miles on the extreme north, where the Alaskan 
possessions of the United States interpose between it 
and the sea. The southern limit is the forty-ninth par- 
allel, which forms the international boundarv between 
the province and the United States. The northern 
boundary is the sixtieth parallel. Vancouver Island is 
separated from the state of Washington by the Strait 
of San Juan de Fuca. It is oblong in shape, extending 
northwesterly parallel with the mainland, from which 
it is divided by the Strait of the Gulf of Georgia, a 
distance of 300 miles, with a varying width of from 
twenty to sixty miles. 

The climate varies considerably, as the province is 
naturally divided into two sections, insular and conti- 
nental. It is much more moderate and equable than 
that of any other province of the Dominion. In the 
southeastern portion of the mainland, and particularly 
on the southeastern part of Vancouver Island, the 
climate is much superior to that of southern England 
or central France. In this section of the prov- 
ince snow seldom falls, and then lies but a 
few hours or days. Vegetation remains green 



RESOURCES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 121 

and the flowers are bright through the greater 
part of nearly every winter; while in spring and 
summer disagreeable east winds, excessively heavy 
rains and long-continued fogs are unknown. Gener- 
ally speaking, spring commences in February in all 
parts of the province west of the Cascade Mountains. 
East of these mountains the winters are short, but 
sharp, continuing from six to ten or twelve weeks, with 
a temperature down sometimes as low as twenty or 
even thirty degrees below zero. Summers in this re- 
gion are correspondingly warm. In the northern por- 
tions of the province the cold of winter is severe; but 
everywhere the climate is salubrious and healthy. In 
proportion to the area of the province, the extent of 
land suitable for agricultural purposes is small ; but in 
the aggregate there are many thousands of square 
miles of arable soil, so diverse in character, location 
and climatic conditions as to be suited to the produc- 
tion of every fruit, cereal, vegetable, plant and flower 
known to the temperate zone. West of the Cascade 
Mountains spring and early summer rains are quite 
sufficient to bring crops to maturity; but further east, 
in the great stock-raising interior, irrigation is gener- 
ally required for mixed farming purposes. In this 
part of the province there are immense areas of open 
bunch grass country admirably adapted to grazing; 
while the coast of the mainland and Vancouver Island 
are much better suited to mixed farming. Unoccupied 
land in these sections is all more or less timbered, but 
with a considerable acreage almost everywhere that can 
be easily cleared and brought under cultivation. Alder 
bottoms and small grassy swamps are to be found in 
nearly all the numerous valleys; and this is the descrip- 
tion of land that settlers are looking after and locating 
on. 
I In mineral resources British Columbia is by far the 
richest of all the Canadian provinces. Coal is abund- 
ant, while gold, silver, iron, copper, galena, mercury, 
platinum, plumbago, mica, slate, salt and many others 



122 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

are widely distributed. With the exception of coal 
nearly all the mining industries are in their infancy and 
awaiting development. 

The coal output from Vancouver's Island during 
1894 was 1,012,953 tons, which is the second best year 
on record. It was disposed of as follows: Exported, 
827,642 tons; home consumption, 165,776 tons; leaving 
less than two weeks' product on hand at the end of 
the year. On Graham Island, the northern of the 
Queen Charlotte group, three beds of bituminous coal 
have been discovered, varying from 7 1-2 to 16 feet in 
thickness, and of superior quality; also, two large 
seams of anthracite have been found near Yakom 
Lake, but neither have been developed. Near Crow's 
Neat Pass beds of excellent quality and immense thick- 
ness (one seam being thirty feet) extend a distance of 
about thirty miles. This coal is manufactured into 
coke. At the Kootenay mines, coke now costs $14 
per ton, but when the projected British Columbia 
Southern Railway is built it is expected that better 
coke, from the Crow's Nest collieries, can be supplied 
in the Kootenay mining district at about one-half of 
the present prices. The smelters at work now in the 
Kootenay are greatly hampered on account of the 
high price of coke, one at Pilot Bay is using thirty 
tons per day. From this smelter, which only com- 
menced its operations March 9, 1895, the bullion 
shipped to the United States, up to the 30th of June, 
amounted to 1,301 tons. In the Cariboo district great 
activity prevails in hydraulic mining. The success 
which attended the short runs made by the companies 
excited great interest. In June, 1895, a "clean up," 
after a run of 172 hours, gave sixty-six pounds, three 
ounces of gold, valued at $14,400. Several joint 
stock companies have been formed to prosecute gold 
mining on a large scale in the Cariboo district. In 
West Kootenay, near the boundary line, profitable in- 
vestments have been made. The first cost and develop- 
ment work of the "War Eagle" mine amounted to 



RESOURCES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 123 

$32,500. Shipments of ore commenced January 1, 
1895, and up to June 1, 1895, $82,500 were paid on 
dividends. During June the shipments of ore aver- 
aged 420 tons per week, at an average value of $37 
per ton. The ore is mined at a cost of $9.50 per ton, 
freight and smaller charges amount to $14 additional 
per ton. In the Kootenay district 1,215 mineral claims 
were recorded, 797 transfers, and 962 certificates of 
work issued in 1894. There were ninety-seven placer 
claims recorded in the district of West Kootenay dur- 
ing 1896, and there were thirty-six mining leases in 
force in the Yale district during 1894, 140 mineral 
claims were recorded, seventy-seven transfers made, 
and 125 certificates of work issued. Reports from Al- 
berni district, Vancouver Island, are encouraging. 
Assays of quartz found not far from Alberni town site 
gave from $103 to $135 value of gold per ton, with 
traces of silver. A large number of claims have re- 
cently been located in that district. For the year ended 
June 30, 1895, forty mining and smelting companies 
were incorporated in British Columbia to operate in 
precious metals, with nominal capital aggregating 
$24,344,000. The total output of gold in British Co- 
lumbia during 1894 is officially stated at $456,066; 
estimated yield of silver, $8,500; with $784,965 in gold, 
silver, copper and lead ore shipped from Nelson to the 
United States, not included. Number of miners em- 
ployed in 1894 is given at 1,610. Rich deposits of iron 
ore are found on Vancouver and the smaller islands, 
as well as on the coast and mainland. Those deposits 
are extensive and accessible, being situated mostly near 
good harbors, with the necessary fluxes for smelting 
conveniently at hand. The ore averages from sixty to 
seventy per cent of iron. There is an abundance of 
timber for charcoal, also coal and limestone in the 
vicinity of the various deposits of ore. Latest reports 
from Cariboo mining district state: 'The Cariboo Gold 
Fields Company are progressing very well with their 
work. A large number of men are employed on the 



124 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

pipe line ditch. Several hundred Chinamen are at 
work on the big ditch, which will be nearly eleven miles 
long, three feet deep, and seven feet wide. They have 
already commenced the trestle work to carry the pipe 
past the town, which will take about 2,000 feet of 
trestling. The pay roll for whites alone is about $5,000 
per month. The contract for the ditch was let to a 
Chinese firm, their tender being considerably lower 
than any other. The price is somewhere near $30,000. 
Taken as a whole, Cariboo will turn out double the 
quantity of gold this year that it did last." 

The timber resources of British Columbia are prac- 
tically inexhaustible. The immense value of this in- 
dustry, also comparatively new, is beginning .to inter- 
est eastern lumbermen both in Canada and the States. 
Large tracts of valuable timber lands have already 
been purchased or leased by eastern capitalists, and 
extensive mills erected here and there, while many 
others are to be built in the near future. The 524,573 
acres of forest lands leased to lumbermen are esti- 
mated to contain at least twenty million feet of timber 
per acre. 

Second to none of the above mentioned resources 
is that of the fisheries. The land-locked and quiet 
bays, inlets, and fjords, together with rivers and small 
streams, teem with valuable food fish of almost every 
variety known in the north temperate zone. Among 
them are salmon and cod, several species each; halibut, 
sturgeon, herring, oulachan and many other varieties, 
besides small fish. One of the most delicious of deep 
water fish is the skil, or black cod, as it is sometimes 
called. This is considered far superior to the cod of 
Newfoundland, and has only to be introduced into the 
markets of the world to create an almost unlimited 
demand. 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 1 25 



CHAPTER XIX. 

COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 

Trip from Port Simpson on the Pacific to the summit of 
Pine River Pass — Wonderful mountain and valley scen- 
ery — Resources of the mighty valleys in the mountain 
slopes. 

Let us make three distinct trips across the Roddes, 
first from the Pacific Ocean, at Port Simpson, east- 
ward by way of the Skeena, the Pine River Pass, and 
thence down the Pine to Peace River and to Lake 
Athabasca; second, up the Lewis, from its junction 
with the Pelly to form the Yukon, in the Klondike 
region, to its head waters in the Rockies, thence across 
the low range of mountains at this point, to the head- 
waters of the Peace River, and down that stream to 
Lake Athabasca; and third, up the Pelly River, from 
the same point of departure, to Dease Lake, thence 
across the watershed by a chain of lakes, to the head- 
waters of the Liard River, and down the Liard to the 
Mackenzie. The. latter will include a description of 
the wonderful Pdfy River basin. 

These journeys on the printed page will familiarize 
the reader with the best routes by which to reach the 
Klondike, and the entire gold regions of the far north- 
west, as well as with the districts in which future great 
gold discoveries are sure to be made. 

And now as t<* the first route — from Port Simpson 
via the Pine Rivev Pass to Lake Athabasca, and thence 
to the west shore of Hudson's Bay. This will carry us 
through a country unsurpassed in the beauty of its 
natural scenery, the value of its resources and its les- 
sons iv\ possible transcontinental communication. 

The coast of Northern British Columbia, from 
which we are to select our starting point for this jour- 



126 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

ney, dissected as it is with inlets, has by no means an 
abundance of good harbors. The inlets are, however, 
for the most part, deep, with bold, rocky shores, and 
traversed by strong tidal currents. The heads almost 
always receive rivers, each of which has formed shoal 
banks about its mouth, owing to which shallowness of 
the water they are unsafe anchorages. Take, for in- 
stance, the mouth and estuary of the Skeena. It is 
shallow and encumbered with bars and banks, and is 
unsuited for a harbor. 

Not far to the north, however, and easily accessible 
from the valley of the Skeena, lies Port Simpson, one 
of the safest anchorages on the Pacific coast, and one 
of the finest harbors in the world. It is over three miles 
in length, with an average breadth of over one mile, 
is well sheltered, and very easy of access. Moreover, 
it lies at the eastern end of Dixon's Entrance, through 
which vessels lying in that port have direct connection 
with the Pacific Ocean between Cape Knox, the north- 
ern extremity of the Queen Charlotte Islands, and 
Cape Muzon, the southwestern extremity of Prince of 
Wales Island. Passing out of Port Simpson, through 
Chatham Sound, the Dundas Islands are on the left 
and Fort Tongus on the right. There are no obstruc- 
tions of any kind to interfere with navigation. 

The physical features of the coast in this neighbor- 
hood are full of interest. Professor Dawson, who 
has made a geological examination of this section, 
says: "The Coast or Cascade Range of British Colum- 
bia is that forming the high western border of the 
continent, but beyond it lies another half-submerged 
range, which appears in Vancouver and the Queen 
Charlotte Islands, and is represented in the south by 
the Olympian Mountains of Washington Territory, 
and northward by the large islands of the coast archi- 
pelago of Alaska. In this outer range there are three 
remarkable gaps, the most southern occupied by the 
Strait of Fuca, the central being the 'wide opening 
between Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands, 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 127 

and the northern, Dixon's entrance. To the south of 
these, the lower part of the valley of the Columbia ap- 
pears to occupy a similar depression, through which, 
and by Puget Sound, a moderate subsidence of the 
land would enable the sea to flow, forming of the 
Olympian Mountain region an additional large island. 
Whatever the ultimate origin of the gaps holding the 
Strait of Fuca and Dixon's entrance, they are features 
of great structural importance, and are continued east- 
ward in both cases by depressions more or less marked 
in the coast range proper." 

These observations are borne out by the fact that 
Fraser River, carrying the greater part of the drainage 
between the coast range and the Rockies, after flowing 
southward for several hundred miles, reaches the sea 
opposite the end of the Strait of Fuca; while the Skeena, 
the river we shall ascend, whose tributaries interlock 
with those of the Fraser, and derive their waters from 
the same plateau, falls into the Pacific near the head 
of Dixon's Entrance. We have but little to do with 
the Fraser, however, as our route leads us to its head 
waters only. The Skeena, to which we desire to direct 
attention more especially, falls into the ocean near the 
head of Dixon's Inlet, not far south of. Port Simpson. 
The tributaries of this stream interlock with those of 
the Fraser. It is a wonderful volume of water, not so 
much for its greatness as for the beauty of its scenery 
and the magnificent valley through which it flows. 
Another large river, the Nasse, flows into the Pacific 
north of the Skeena, drawing its waters from the far 
north. 

The country in the immediate neighborhood of Port 
Simpson is not of great agricultural value. There are 
patches of good soil ; but for the most part the covering 
of soil is nearly everywhere scanty. There is, how- 
ever, an abundance of good timber, except on the 
mountain sides, which are nearly all too steep for vege- 
tation to cling to. This is considerably below the 
sixtieth parallel. 



128 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Port Simpson, as you may judge, is an old seat of 
the Hudson's Bay Company. The post wears a de- 
cidedly military appearance, notwithstanding that its 
defences have long ago fallen into disuse. Besides the 
company's officers and employes, there are quite a 
number of traders in the neighborhood, as well as 
Indians; and, like almost all the other important posts 
of the ancient company, its mission church is one of 
the most attractive features. 

There is a large colony of Indians about sixteen 
miles south of Port Simpson, called Metlah-Catlah, 
where a station of the Church Missionary Society is 
in a flourishing condition. Still farther to the south, 
at the mouth of the Skeena, is a third Indian establish- 
ment, with one or two traders. These, with the ex- 
ception of canning establishments, are all the settle- 
ments between the mouth of the Skeena and Port 
Simpson. 

The fisheries here are fast becoming important in- 
dustries. The salmon are of excellent quality, and are 
very abundant in both the Skeena and the Nasse to 
the north of it. These fish are chiefly taken in nets in 
the estuaries of the rivers, and a large number of In- 
dians and Chinamen are employed in connection with 
the canning business. The sea fisheries of the coast 
also promise to afford a very profitable industry. 

The climate of Port Simpson and neighborhood is 
not subject to great extremes of temperature. There 
is much rain at all seasons, and occasionally, in winter- 
heavy falls of snow. We have at hand no meteorolog- 
ical data with regard to Port Simpson proper, but have 
what speaks volumes in support of its excellent cli- 
mate in the records of Sitka, two and a half degrees 
north of that place. However, the latitude of Sitka 
is but 57.3 N., or only about a degree north of Glasgow 
in Scotland, while Port Simpson is about 54-33 N. At 
Sitka the temperature observations, extending over a 
period of sixty years, show that the mean temperature 
of spring is 41.2; of summer 54.6; of autumn 44.9; of 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 129 

winter 32.5 ; and for the entire year, 43.3F. The ex- 
tremes of temperature for sixty years are 87.8 and — 4.0. 
However, the mercury has fallen below zero in only 
four years out of the sixty, and has risen to about 80 
degrees in but seven years of that period. The coldest 
month is January, the warmest August; June is 
slightly warmer than September. The mean of the 
minima for seven years of the above period is 38.6, 
and that of the maxima for seven years, 48.9, showing 
a remarkably equable climate. 

Fogs do not occur in the neighborhood of Fort 
Simpson as on the southern part of the coast. In 
proof of this we may quote the adventurous La Pe- 
rouse, the mariner who subdued Fort Prince of Wales, 
on Hudson's Bay, in 1782. He speaks of fogs in this 
locality as of rare occurrence, and records obtained 
subsequently to his fully justify his observations. 
Professor Dawson, who has made extended observa- 
tions around Port Simpson, says that the cause of the 
exceptional mildness of the climate of that district 
is to be found not alone in the fact of the proximity of 
the sea, but in the abnormal warmth of the water due 
to the Kuro-Siwo or Japanese Current. The average 
temperature of the surface of the sea, during the sum- 
mer months, in the vicinity of the Queen Charlotte 
Islands, as deduced from a number of observations in 
1878, is 53.8. Between Victoria and Milbanke Sound, 
by the inner channels, from May 28th to June 9th, the 
average temperature of the sea surface was 54.1. In 
the inner channels between Port Simpson and Mil- 
banke Sound, between August 29th and September 
1 2th, 54.5 ; and from the last mentioned date to October 
1 8th, about the north end of Vancouver Island, and 
thence to Victoria by the inner channels, 50.7. Ob- 
servations by the United States Coast Survey in the 
latter part of July and early in August, 1867, gave a 
mean temperature of 52.1, for the surface of the sea 
between Victoria and Port Simpson, and outside of 
the Prince of Wales archipelago, from Port Simpson 



130 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

to Sitka. In the narrower inlets of the coast, the 
temperature of the sea falls, owing to the quantity of 
cold water mingled with it by th'e entering of the 
rivers. 

Our journey is from Port Simpson to Churchill. 
We travel first to the mouth of the Skeena, where is 
situated the village of Port Essington, or Spuksute, a 
native hamlet. The surface of the country here is low, 
level and swampy, and rough with stumps and logs, 
the remains of an originally dense forest growth. Be- 
hind the little flat on which the village stands is a 
ridge, rising in one place to a remarkable peak. 

As we are going over this route with a view to judge 
of its practicability for railway location, we must ob- 
serve that, from the Skeena, Port Simpson may be 
easily reached by the iron horse. Mr. Crombie, C. E., 
in his report in 1877, says: "The distance to Port 
Simpson (from the Skeena) is probably eight miles 
greater than to a point on the mainland opposite Car- 
dena Bay; but the obstacles to the construction of a 
railway line are not so great, and the cost of building 
it would probably be less." 

The mouth or entrance to the Skeena was first ex- 
plored by Mr. Whidbey, of Vancouver's staff, in July, 
1793. He appears to have gone no further up than 
the mouth of the Ecstall, and to have been too easily 
convinced that the inlet was of no particular import- 
ance. To Vancouver the name of Port Essington is 
due, and was by him originally applied to the whole 
estuary. It is singular that, notwithstanding the dili- 
gence and skill of Vancouver in his exploration of 
the west coast, he passed the mouths of the three 
largest rivers — the Fraser, the Skeena, and the Nasse, 
without specially noting them. 

The mouth of the river has become pretty much 
filled with debris brought down by the current, so that 
notwithstanding the banks are bold, the water is 
shallow. The mountains on either side, as you ascend 
the river, are steep, and mostly covered with a dense 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 131 

forest. Their summits, though scarcely ever over 
4,000 feet high, are generally covered with snow until 
early in July, and at any season large patches of per- 
petual white will always greet the beholder. In a few 
cases wide areas of bushes and swampy meadows seem 
to occupy the higher slopes, but numerous large and 
bare surfaces of solid rock are visible, from which 
snowslides and landslips have removed whatever cov- 
ering of soil may have originally clung there. The 
tide flows up the Skeena for a distance of eighteen or 
twenty miles above Port Essington. At this point the 
river valley narrows somewhat, and a mass of bare and 
rocky mountains appear on the north bank, whose 
slopes are exceptionally steep, and end at the river 
bank in bluffs and cliffs of considerable height. Be- 
tween the head of tide-water and the mouth of Lakelse 
River, a distance of thirty-six miles, the Skeena re- 
ceives several streams of some importance. The valley 
has an average width in the bottom of from 1 1-2 to 
2 miles, the mountains bordering it everywhere, 
reaching 3,000 to 4,000 feet at a short distance from 
the river. At about half way between the two points 
mentioned, however, the height of the mountains ap- 
pears often to exceed 4,000 feet, and they probably 
reach 5,000 feet on both sides of the river, west of the 
Lakelse. Near the Lakelse, with a decreasing altitude, 
they assume more rounded forms and show less bare 
rock, being covered with trees nearly up to their sum- 
mits. The quantity of snow which accumulates on 
the higher mountains is evidently very great. 

Through the greater part of the Skeena the dull, 
brownish water flows at the rate of four to six miles 
an hour, sweeping round its many islands, and pouring 
through the accumulated piles of drift logs with a 
steady rushing sound. No reaches of slack water oc- 
cur. The river is evidently quite shallow, although 
it is navigable for steamboats for a distance of at least 
five miles above the Kitsumgalum, where the Sipkiaw 
Rapid is met with. Islands are exceedingly numerous, 



132 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

and so divide the stream as to cause it to occupy in 
many places a great portion of the valley. Above the 
rapid mentioned, there are but few islands. About 
four miles above the Sipkiaw, the Zymoetz River, 
from the southeast, joins the Skeena. It is a stream 
of considerable size. The mountains among which it 
rises are over 6,000 feet high. 

About five miles above the Zymoetz, or seventy- 
seven from the Pacific, is Kitsalas Canyon. The 
mountains at this point crowd closely on the river, 
especially on the north side, and though the cliffs and 
precipices are seldom over 100 feet in height, they 
are rugged, and the hillsides above them are steep and 
rough. The channel of the river is also broken by 
several small islands. At the lower end of the canyon 
the river greatly expands. In foaming torrents, or 
dashing eddies of the canyon are the favorite salmon 
fishing stations of the Indians. It is difficult to ascend 
the river through this canyon, but the task may be 
accomplished by skillful canoe-men, who make two 
short portages; the rapids may be descended safely 
without portaging. 

There is a small Indian settlement on the north side 
of the river at the lower end of the canyon. The huts 
are mostly rude, and in front of them are planted 
strangely carved totem-posts, having figures of birds, 
beasts, etc., at the top. At the upper end of the canyon 
on the south bank is another small Indian settlement 
with about a dozen huts, some in a state of great 
dilapidation. This canyon is in latitude 54, 37, 6 N. 
Not far to the north of the canyon, the mountains are 
over 6,000 feet high. 

From Kitsalas Canyon to Kwatsalix, a distance of 
about twenty-four miles, the general course of the 
river is nearly north and south. Here the highest 
range of the coast mountains appears to be crossed; 
but the river has appropriated a natural valley, and not 
cut through the range. The river in this part of its 
course has several swift rapids, but when the water is 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 133 

not too high, these are not hard to overcome. The 
valley continues to be about a mile and a half wide — 
in places two miles — between the steep slopes of its 
bordering mountains. It winds considerably, but 
makes no abrupt turns. On either side of the stream 
there is a flat, sometimes more extensive on one side 
than on the other, about thirty feet above the water, 
well wooded, and containing a good soil. These 
spaces are, in season, mostly covered with wild peas, 
vetches, and other plants, growing luxuriantly, es- 
pecially where the timber has been burned away. 
Speaking of the scenery along this part of the river, 
Professor Dawson says: "From various points a few 
miles above Kitsalas Canyon, fine glimpses of the 
higher peaks are obtained, but a better view, including 
the whole snow-clad Sierra, some tent-like peaks of 
which surpass a height of 8,000 feet, is gained on look- 
ing back on this region from the hills above the Forks. 
In several places small valleys in the upper parts of 
the range are filled with blue glacier ice, and one 
glacier, which appears to be of some size, is situated a 
few miles below Kwatsalix on the right bank. The 
semi-circular valley containing this, surrounded by 
peaks estimated at 7,000 feet in height and abundantly 
covered with snow, is probably the finest piece of 
mountain scenery on the river. The glacier occupies 
the bottom of a narrow V-shaped valley and is prob- 
ably about a quarter of a mile in width, rising up be- 
tween the slopes like a broad wagon-road. The ice 
appears from a distance to be completely covered with 
fallen stones and debris, and though the slope of the 
valley is considerable, the motion of the glacier must 
be slow, as the stream flowing from it was, 'at the date 
of our visit, nearly without earthy impurity. The end 
of this glacier is about four miles back from the river, 
and was estimated to be about 600 feet above it." 

Kwatsalix Canyon is a part of the river less than 
half a mile in length, where steep rocks and low cliffs 
come down to the water's edge; but, although the 



134 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

water runs swiftly, there is scarcely a true rapid, and 
canoes may be worked up it without great difficulty. 
There are a few Indian huts at Kwatsalix, but the 
larger Indian village, Kitwanga, is situated on the right 
bank of the river some twenty-four miles above it. 
It consists of about fifteen or twenty huts, located on 
a flat of considerable extent, and at a height of about 
twenty feet above the river. A trail leads from this 
place across to the Nasse River, which is three days' 
journey to the north. The huts are of the usual style, 
and the village is marked by several totem-posts 
curiously carved. 

About seven miles above Kitwanga the mouth of 
the Kitseguecla River is met with, and some of the 
strongest rapids on the Skeena are situated near the 
confluence with this river. From a point above this 
to the Forks, the current is less powerful. There is 
a small Indian village near the mouth of the Kit- 
seguecla, consisting of about ten houses of quite mod- 
ern style. The Forks, or Hazelton, is situated on the 
left bank of the Skeena, a short distance above the 
junction of the Watsonkwa. It stands on an extensive 
flat ten or fifteen feet above the river, and at the base 
of a higher terrace, which rises very steeply to a height 
of 170 feet. Two or three traders live here, and there 
is an Indian village of about half a dozen barn-like 
buildings, each accommodating several families. 

The Skeena country, or valley through which we 
have traveled so far, may to some extent be called 
an agricultural country. On the lower part of the 
river, with the exception of a few islands there is no 
good land. At about twenty-five miles below the 
Forks, however, the higher terraces at the sides of the 
river, and a few hundred feet above its level, extend in 
many places some miles back from it. These plains 
contain excellent soil, consisting of a sandy loam with 
a considerable proportion of vegetable matter. East- 
ward from the Forks the valleys and plateaus present 
the same characteristics, only that the fertile areas are 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 135 

more extensive. Most of the rivers flowing into the 
Skeena have more or less extensive valleys all well 
suited to agriculture. 

The climate of the Skeena country, especially in the 
neighborhood of the Forks, is similar to that of Mon- 
treal, except that the winters are colder. Snow gen- 
erally falls first in October but melts again, the winter 
snow not coming until the middle of December. The 
winter is, in general, steadily cold, similar in all re- 
spects to that of Winnipeg except that there is always 
a thaw in February. Spring comes even earlier than 
in Manitoba. Grass begins to grow, and many varie- 
ties of trees to bud, the first week in April. Some little 
cultivation has been carried on. Potatoes are annual- 
ly grown; they are usually fit for use by the first of 
July, and are harvested before the end of September. 
Wheat has been tried and found to do well. Oats 
do exceptionally well, and in 1878 two successive 
crops ripened before the frosts came. The second of 
course was a "volunteer crop." Squashes, cucumbers, 
and other tender vegetables can be grown success- 
fully. Cattle and horses are wintered with ease in this 
section ; but, as in Manitoba, they require to be stabled 
and fed during the winter months. 

The Skeena opens during the last week in April, 
and ice forms over it during the last week in Decem- 
ber. It is generally highest in July, and is lowest im- 
mediately after the ice goes out. Its vast volume of 
water is supplied from the melting snow on the moun- 
tains. The snow-fall is from five to ten feet on the 
lower Skeena, but in the neighborhood of the Forks 
it does not exceed an average depth of three feet. 
/Above the Forks it is less than two feet, being less 
throughout than in any location for a long distance 
south of it. Upon the whole, the general characteris- 
tics of the climate are much the same as those of Mani- 
toba. 

The Watsonkwa River, which joins the Skeena from 
the south-eastward at the Forks, has a magnificent 



136 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

valley throughout its entire length. It is partly prairie, 
and produces a magnificent growth of grass. 

From the Forks eastward to the summit of Pine 
River Pass, there are many routes which the traveler 
may take; but it is impossible to state, until further 
exploratory surveys are made, which is most suitable 
for a railway line. It is sufficient to say that there 
is a choice of some three or four, any of which offer 
good facilities for railway construction. Owing to the 
facts that the Skeena River, above the Forks, is very 
rapid, and that the Babine River which flows into it 
is quite impassable in its canyons for canoes, and that 
it makes a long detour to the north, we will leave the 
Skeena at the Forks for the north end of Babine 
Lake. The distance is about forty miles in a straight 
line; by the trail it is nearly fifty, and the direction is 
almost due east. 

The Skeena Forks, or Kitma, is the site of an In- 
dian village where about two hundred and fifty 
Tshimsians reside. Here the waters of the Bulkley 
River, flowing from the southeast, mingle with those 
of the Skeena, which, at, and above this point, flow 
from the north. The waters of the Bulkley come from 
the same series of small lakes in which the Nechaco 
River takes its rise, flowing easterly to Fort George,, 
beyond which it is lost in the Fraser. 

Our present route from the Forks to the north end 
of Babine Lake is on a trail known as the Old Indian 
route. It was cut out and improved by the Govern- 
ment of British Columbia a number of years ago, so as 
to afford easy access to the Omenica mining district. 
It is still used to a great extent by the Indians, who 
make a regular business of carrying goods and pro- 
visions across. After leaving the somewhat flat coun- 
try at the Forks, the trail passes over nearly level coun- 
try for several miles. It is wooded with poplar, cotton- 
wood and birch mixed with evergreen trees, and seems 
to have a good soil, and to be well fitted for cultivation. 
Grass, with wild peas and vetches, grow in great, 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 1^7 

luxuriance; and, traveling through this beautiful dis- 
trict in the spring or early summer months, one will 
find all the thickets fragrant with wild roses. A great 
variety of wholesome berries abound beyond the 
limit of description, and strawberries, in their season, 
might be gathered by the ton. It is indeed a wonder- 
ful country. 

Not far from the Forks the trail reaches the gently 
sloping hill sides on the right bank of the Watsonkwa, 
which it continues to follow for seven or eight miles, 
till a stream called the Suskwa is reached, just above 
its junction with the Watsonkwa. In following the 
hill sides, the valleys of several small streams flow- 
ing in courses of greater or less depth, are crossed. 
The valley of the main stream, from the bases of the 
mountains to the river side is wide ; but the immediate 
valley of the river is steep-sided, and its waters flow 
onward with great force between rocky banks. The 
Indians in this part of the country construct bridges 
across such streams as are too rapid to be crossed in 
canoes with safety, when they are not too wide for the 
means at disposal. These have been called suspension 
bridges, and are ingenious in plan. 

About six miles from its mouth the Suskwa is joined 
by the Skil-o-kis, from the north, a very rapid stream, 
fifty-seven feet wide and two feet deep. This is crossed 
by a newly constructed Indian bridge like those 
previously mentioned. Five miles further on, in a 
general eastward direction, the main valley of the 
Suskwa turns to the south southeast, while the trail 
continues eastward by that of a large tributary. The 
sources of this stream, known as the Oo-ats-anli, are 
reached in about fourteen miles, and the summit is 
passed at a distance of seven miles from the north 
end of Babine Lake. 

The summit of the range separating the valleys of 

the Watsonkwa and Skeena from the basin of Babine 

Lake is passed in a low altitude where mountain sheep 

and mountain goats are to be seen in considerable 
10 



138 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

numbers. From this summit, looking" eastward, Ba- 
bine Lake is seen stretching far to the southeastward 
like a silver ribbon, its banks generally low, with flats 
or rounded hills of moderate elevation bordering them. 
Before reaching the lake the trail crosses a small 
stream called the Tzes-a-tza-kwa, or canoe-making 
river. It is about fifty feet wide by one foot deep at 
low water. 

The group of lakes, says Prof. Dawson, of which 
Babine is one, may be regarded as occupying two 
parallel valleys, which conform to the general north- 
westerly and southeasterly bearings which govern the 
main features of the whole country lying between the 
Rocky Mountains proper and the coast. Babine Lake 
for the greater part of its length, lies nearly parallel to 
the Watsonkwa Valley, but at its southern end bends 
abruptly eastward, a wide valley running through from 
its extremity to the head of Stewart Lake. The water- 
shed between the Skeena and Fraser River systems is 
situated in this valley: — Babine Lake discharging 
northward by the Babine River, which, after follow- 
ing the general direction of the valley occupied by the 
lake for some distance, cuts across the line of the Ba- 
bine Mountains and reaches the Skeena; Stewart Lake 
discharging by the Stewart River into the Nechaco, 
and thence to the Fraser. The valley of Stewart Lake 
opens widely at the southeastern extremity of the low 
country of Nechaco and Chilacco. Stewart Lake oc- 
cupies the southeastern part of the second or north- 
eastern of the great valleys above referred to ; and to 
the northwest of it, in the same line, lie Trembleur, 
Tacla, and Bear lakes. Stewart Lake is about forty 
miles in extreme length, Tacla forty-six miles, and 
Bear Lake about twelve miles; the dimensions of 
Trembleur and Traverse or Cross Lake are not known. 
Trembleur and Tacla lakes discharge southeastward 
into Stewart Lake, while Bear Lake forms the source 
of the Skeena. With the increasingly mountainous 
character of the country to the north the height of the 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. 139 

water surface in the lakes increases, being approxi- 
mately as follows: Stewart Lake, 2,200, Tacla Lake 
2,271/ Bear Lake 2,604. 

The route from Fort Babine, on the northern por- 
tion of Lake Babine to Fort St. James, at the southern 
extremity of Stewart Lake, is by the lakes above de- 
scribed. It is a six days' journey with a pack train 
from Fort St. James to Fort McLeod, on the north 
end of McLeod Lake, which is in latitude 55 north, or 
the same as Fort Babine. From Fort McLeod to the 
summit of Pine River Pass the distance is short, and 
the direction northeasterly. From Stewart Lake to 
McLeod Lake the region, as a whole, is flat, and 
characterized rather by low ridges and terraces than 
by hills. Its eastern part drains towards Stewart Lake, 
but the greatest area is drained by Salmon River and 
its tributaries, which, flowing southward, join the 
Fraser near Fort George. East of the Salmon River 
lies the Pacific and Arctic watershed, beyond which 
the Long Lake River, a small stream, is found flowing 
toward McLeod's Lake. On leaving Stewart Lake 
the ground rises gradually till a height of 400 feet 
is gained at eight or nine miles from the lake. The 
surface is generally undulating, has been frequently 
burned over, and shows fine grassy meadows, suitable 
for cultivation. From this place to the crossing of 
Salmon River the country consists of undulating up- 
lands, the highest point of which is about 700 feet 
above Stewart Lake. 

We may travel from the Hudson's Bay post, Fort 
McLeod, at the northern- end of McLeod Lake, to 
the summit of the Pine River Pass, by way of the 
Misinchinca River. The Pack River, issuing from 
McLeod Lake, is about two hundred feet wide, and 
has an average depth of about two feet in July. It 
flows northward about fifteen miles to its junction 
with the Parsnip River, which joins it from the south- 
east. At the mouth of the Misinchinca, the Parsnip, 
according to comparative barometer readings, is 2,170 



140 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

feet above the sea. It has a width of five hundred feet, 
and is generally quite deep. The current is rapid, av- 
eraging probably three or four miles an hour, the 
waters being brownish and muddy, and evidently in 
great part derived from melting snow. 

But we are nearing the Pine River Pass. The val- 
ley which is occupied by the lower part of the Misin- 
chinca may be said to come to an end at the mouth of 
the Atunatche, inosculating with a second, which runs 
in a north northwest by south southeast course parallel 
to the main direction of flexure and elevation in this 
part of the Rocky Mountains. In the opposite direc- 
tion this depression becomes the Atunatche Valley, and 
further on that of the upper part of the Pine River, 
which, after flowing north northwestward for eleven 
miles, turns abruptly to the eastward and finds its way 
to the Peace River below Fort St. John. Here on this 
summit, in latitude 55, 24, IJ, the height is but 2,440 
feet above the sea, or, according to all authorities, 
less than 2,500 feet. 

From this point we are to descend to the great 
agricultural plains of the Pine and Athabasca rivers, 
and the vast fertile regions of the Peace River and its 
tributaries. We have hurriedly sketched the distance 
from Port Simpson on the Pacific to this Pass, in view 
of its fitness for the location of a railway line to con- 
nect the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic, via Hudson's 
Bay. 

The land in the Pine River Valley for fifty miles 
above its junction with the Peace is of excellent quali- 
ty, and well suited for agricultural and grazing pur- 
poses. It should be observed that this fertile strip of 
land, lying nearly in the heart of the Rocky Mountains, 
is an extension of the Beaver Plains which connect 
with the great fertile belt stretching from Manitoba 
to and beyond the Peace River. 

Finally, the following may be noted as the salient 
facts ascertained from this exploration, viz: That a 
depression occurs in the Rocky Mountain range, ex- 



COUNTRY OF THE SKEENA. I4I 

tending from 55.15 to 5545, north latitude: That a 
pass exists in this depression which, together with its 
approaches from east and west is, with respect to rail- 
way construction, of a generally favorable character: 
That the summit of this pass is 2,440 feet above the 
level of the sea, which summit, for the sake of con- 
venient comparison, it may be observed, is 1,293 feet 
lower than that of the Yellowhead Pass; 1,065 ^ eet 
lower than the watershed between the Fraser and 
Homathco rivers; 660 feet lower than the summit to 
Dean Channel; and, to carry the comparison a little 
farther, 5,802 feet lower than the highest point on 
the Union Pacific Railway. 

We have now to examine the country from the Pine 
River to Churchill on Hudson's Bay, and see what its 
advantages are, and to note some of its requirements 
from the standpoint of cheap transportation. This will 
complete our observations of the country to be 
traversed by the proposed transcontinental Short 
Line from the Pacific Coast to Europe, via the Pine 
River Pass and the Hudson's Bay route. We will then 
turn our attention to the other two before-named 
passes to the north, which lead from the great plains 
of the far northwest to the Klondike regions. 



142 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XX. 

FROM THE ROCKIES TO CHURCHILL. 

A transcontinental route from Atlantic to Pacific through 
Hudson's Bay and Strait — Across the rich, fertile prai- 
ries, through the Pine River Pass— Vast areas of rich 
lands. 

We have traveled in the forgoing chapter from the 
Pacific to and through the Pine River Pass of the 
Rockies, and we will now complete the journey east- 
ward to Hudson's Bay, and will travel more than a 
thousand miles through the finest agricultural country 
in the world. The descent from the summit is gradual 
towards the level plains. The great fertile valley or 
lower plain with its mighty rivers, its extensive, pure 
lakes and innumerable small streams, stretches away 
eastward to Hudson's Bay, northward, to our left, to 
the head waters of the Mackenzie, and southeastward 
for more than two thousand miles. The prospect to 
one descending from this pass is inspiring. The fer- 
tile area before the traveler comprises over 300.000,000 
acres. Down to our left on the broad plains of the 
Peace River there is the climate of the most favored 
portions of British Columbia, with the finest soil in the 
world. There countless herds of cattle may roam and 
fatten upon the rich grasses that everywhere abound, 
without the shelter of barn or stable, and without be- 
ing exposed to the severity of an ordinary winter 
climate. There all kinds of orchard and garden fruits 
may be cultivated and grown in plenty, and the best 
cereals of the northern temperate zone harvested in 
yields unequaled anywhere. 

Down before us to the eastward, beyond the Smoky 
River, are spread out the limitless alluvial plains of the 
Athabaska and its tributaries, an expanse of fertile 



FROM THE ROCKIES TO CHURCHILL. 



143 



territory that must soon become thickly populated with 
a prosperous agricultural community; while away to 
the southeast, in the country of the North Saskatche- 
wan, the heart of the wheat belt is reached. 

Mr. Sanford Fleming, C. M. G., in a paper read by 
him in 1878 before the Royal Colonial Institute, Lon- 
don, England, gives the following description of the 
prairie region. He said: "It has been found con- 
venient in describing the general characteristics of 
Canada to divide it into three great regions. Its lead- 
ing botanical, geological and topographical features 
suggest this division. One region, except where 
cleared of its timber by artificial means, is densely 
wooded, another is wooded and mountainous, the third 
is a vast lowland plain of prairie character. The moun- 
tain region is on the western side; the prairie regions 
in the middle; the remainder, which embraces the 
settled Provinces on the St. Lawrence, originally cov- 
ered with a growth of timber, may, for the sake of 
simplicity of description, be considered the woodland 
region. 

'The prairie region of Canada lies in the northern 
drainage basin; it may be considered to extend from 
south to north more than a thousand miles, and nearly 
the same distance from east to west. It is not a treeless 
prairie; a considerable portion is thinly wooded; yet 
the whole is considered as more or less partaking of a 
prairie character. The prairie region, so called, is 
somewhat triangular in form. One side coincides with 
the International Boundary Line, and extends from 
the 95th to the 113th meridian; another side follows 
the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains from the 
49th to about the 64th parallel of latitude. The third 
side, about 1,500 miles in length, skirts a remarkable 
series of lakes, rivalling in size Lakes Erie and Ontario. 
These great water-filled depressions lie in a generally 
straight northwesterly and southeasterly direction. 
They embrace Great Slave Lake, Lake Athabaska, 
Lake Wollaston, Deer Lake, and Lake of the Woods, 



144 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

and they appear to occur geologically, on the separat- 
ing line, between a broad band of Laurentian or 
metamorphic rocks and the softer Silurian formations. 
This great triangular-shaped region is estimated to 
measure about 300,000,000 acres. Its base, running 
along the series of lakes mentioned, will probably av- 
erage less than 1,000 feet above the sea; and its apex, 
near where the International Boundary Line enters 
the Rocky Mountains, will probably be about 4,000 
feet above sea level. This region may generally be 
described as a great plane sloping from its apex in a 
northeastery direction downwards to its base, but the 
inclination is not uniform and unbroken. Several 
terraces and well-defined escarpments stretching across 
the country are met with at intervals. A great propor- 
tion of the surface is gently rolling, and hills of no 
great height occur here and there. The rivers of this 
division of the country flow for a great part of their 
course in deeply-eroded channels, frequently of con- 
siderable width, and as the superficial formations are 
for the most part drift or soft rock, the channels which 
have been furrowed out are but little obstructed by 
falls or steep rapids. They generally present a uni- 
form descent, and the long stretches of some of the 
rivers, although the current be swift, are capable of 
being navigated. A wide expanse of the region to the 
south of the main Saskatchewan is a prairie, without 
trees or shrubs of any kind; the treeless prairie passes 
by easy gradations into copse-woodland with prairie 
intervening. To the north of the Saskatchewan, wood- 
land appears in various localities. On Peace River 
there are extensive prairies ; there is also an agreeable 
mixture of woodland and prairie; and this character 
of country appears to prevail for a considerable dis- 
tance still further north. 

"It is scarcely to be supposed that a region so ex- 
tensive would be found 'all fertile land. The great 
American desert, which covers a wide area in the 
center of the United States, was at one time thought to 



FROM THE ROCKIES TO CHURCHILL. H5 

extend north for a considerable distance into Canada. 
The Boundary Commission's reports, however, ap- 
pear to show that the arid and unproductive tract is 
more limited on the Canadian side than was previous- 
ly supposed; and that a great breadth of the country 
previously considered valueless may be used for pas- 
toral purposes, and some of it ultimately brought under 
cultivation. There are other places within the terri- 
tory described as the prairie region, which are favor- 
able for farming pursuits; and although certain draw- 
backs claim recognition, there can no longer be any 
doubt respecting the salubrity of the climate and the 
existence of vast plains of rare fertility. Information 
on this head has been obtained year by year. Professor 
Macoun, a well known botanist, has recently been 
commissioned specially to investigate this subject. He 
estimates that there are no less than 260,000,000 acres 
of land available in this region alone for farming and 
grazing purposes. 

"The mineral riches of this great division of Canada 
are but imperfectly known. It has, however, been es- 
tablished that immense deposits of coal exist in many 
parts, chiefly along the western side. The examina- 
tions of Mr. Selwyn, Director of the Geological Sur- 
vey, carry the impression that the coal-bearing rocks 
pass, with their associated coal seams, and iron ores, 
beneath the clays farthest east, and it may be that 
shafts would reveal workable seams of coal at such 
limited depths beneath the surface as would render 
them available for fuel and for industrial purposes in 
the heart of the prairies. Should these views of Mr. 
Selwyn prove correct, their realization will be of the 
greatest possible importance to the country. Besides 
coal and iron ore, petroleum, salt and gold have also 
been found. The Red River settlers, exposed to many 
vicissitudes during a space of half a century, did not 
greatly prosper. But since the incorporation with 
Canada of the whole country formerly under the sway 
of the Hudson's Bay Company, marvelous progress 




146 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

has been made. The Province of Manitoba has been 
created around the place which was once the Selkirk 
settlement; its population has increased from a mere 
handful to many thousands, and it has to all appear- 
ance entered on a career of unexampled progress. 

''Manitoba, although a province with prospect so 
brilliant, occupies but a small corner of the fertile 
lands in the interior of Canada. The prairie region, 
as set forth in the foregoing, is alone ten times the 
area of England, reckoning every description of land. 
Such being the case, it may be no vain dream to 
imagine that in due time many provinces will be 
carved out of it, and that many millions of the human 
family may find happy and prosperous homes on these 
rich alluvial plains of Canada." 

Since the above was written by Mr. Fleming, much 
that he predicted has been realized. Extensive coal 
mines have been opened in the Saskatchewan Valley 
and are proving of vast utility. Petroleum has been 
discovered in large quantities, and arrangements are 
now being made to bring it into market; and the 
agricultural capabilities of the region are proving to 
be much greater than the estimate then placed upon 
them. The whole prairie region has been divided into 
five sections, viz: The Province of Manitoba, extend- 
ing from the western boundary of Ontario westward 
to the I02d meridian, and northward to the 53d paral- 
lel; the District of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan, ex- 
tending from the western boundary of the Province of 
Manitoba to the 111th meridian, and northward from 
the International Boundary Line to the 55th parallel, 
the former comprising the south half of the territory 
described, and the latter. the north half; the District 
of Alberta extending from the western limits of As- 
siniboia and Saskatchewan to the eastern limit of Brit- 
ish Columbia, and northward from the International 
Boundary to the 55th parallel; the District of Atha- 
baska, extending northward from the northern limits 
of Alberta to the 60th parallel, and eastward from the 



FROM THE ROCKIES TO CHURCHILL. 147 

eastern boundary of British Columbia' to the 111th 
meridian. The last four will, in due time, be erected 
into provinces, with responsible governments, with 
about their present boundaries. 

The carrying trade of that commerce will find its 
principal channel through the waters of Hudson's 
Bay; and the proposed railway line we are describ- 
ing, from Port Simpson to Churchill, will not only 
bring Japan and Europe closer together by thousands 
of miles than by any other possible route, but must be- 
come the chief avenue of transportation for the whole 
District of Athabaska and the greater portion of Al- 
berta to the south of it, as well as for the illimitable 
region to the north and northwest. 



L 



148 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXL 
METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 

Description of the immediate Klondike country — Life at 
Dawson City — Boom in real estate — Trading and the 
high prices of supplies — Saloons and gambling — The 
future of Dawson City. 

But to return to the Klondike, from which point, or 
rather from the junction of the Pelly and Lewis rivers, 
we are to make two journeys up the western slopes of 
the Rockies, across their summits, and down to the 
great valleys to the eastward. As promised, one of 
these will be by the Lewis, through the pass between 
Fort Mumford and the mountains, bordering the 
southern portion of Lake Dease, thence to the head 
waters of the Peace River and down that stream to 
Lake Athabasca; the other, and more northern, will 
be by the Pelly River to Lake Frances, and through 
the pass between the Blue Mountains and the range 
to the southwest of Lake Frances, to the head waters 
of the Liard River, thence down the Liard or Moun- 
tain River, to Fort Simpson, where it joins the mighty 
Mackenzie in a magnificent prairie region less than 
400 feet above the level of the sea. 

Before following these routes on the printed page, 
it will be interesting to take a look at Dawson City, 
the metropolis of the mining camps of the far north- 
west, and of the country immediately surrounding it. 
A little above Dawson City, which is on the north- 
eastern bank of the Yukon, Klondike River is met, 
flowing from the east or a little north of east. Thirty 
miles above Dawson City, for which distance the Yu- 
kon flows almost directly from the south, Indian River 
is met with, flowing from the east. Between Klondike 
and Indian rivers there is a net-work of creeks flowing 



METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 1 49 

into the former from the south, and into the latter 
from the north, and into the Yukon from the east, the 
banks of all being gold-bearing. An unexplored spur 
of the Rocky Mountains projects westward to the 
head waters of the Klondike and Indian rivers, and 
separates between them for a considerable distance. 
It is probably from this spur, in which it is believed rich 
quartz mines will be discovered, that the coarse gold 
has been washed down to the creeks and rivers of the 
immediate Klondike region. As before noted, the 
principal creeks flowing into the Klondike from the 
south are, commencing on the east, Too-Much-Gold 
Creek, Hunker Creek, Soda Creek, Last Chance 
Creek, Bear Creek and its branches, Boulder, Adams, 
Eldorado and French creeks. The principal streams 
flowing into the Indian River to the south are, com- 
mencing on the east, Dominion Creek, No-Name 
Creek and Quartz Creek. An equal number of streams 
flow southward into Klondike River from the north, 
and northward into Indian River from the south. On 
the west side of the Yukon, a number of rivers flow 
from the west into that river which have already been 
enumerated and described, the principal of which are 
the Forty and Sixty Mile rivers. 

This is the Klondike country proper, and Dawson 
City is its metropolis. The place contains at the pres- 
ent time a population of about 4,000, and during the 
coming winter, when a large number of miners will 
take shelter there to await the warm weather of spring 
to begin mining operations, it will probably reach 6,000 
or 7,000. It is believed that before the close of 1898, 
Dawson City will have a population of 20,000. How- 
ever, as mining operations appear to be moving higher 
up the slopes to the eastward, there is a good prospect 
for towns of considerable size being developed some- 
where on the upper waters of the Lewis and Pelly 
rivers. But the fact that Stewart River, which flows 
into the Yukon to the west, contains a vast area of pay 
gold, together with the rich quartz mines which are 



150 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

sure to be developed in the neighborhood of Dawson 
City, point to that place as the greatest commercial 
center of the gold regions west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains for a long period to come. More than this, it is 
near the head of navigation of the Yukon River for 
steamers of any considerable size, and is a convenient 
point to be reached by those going into the country, 
not only by the way of St. Michaels to the Yukon, but 
from Dyea and Skaguay through the mountain passes 
to the north of these places, and by way of the Lewis 
River. 

It may be noted in this connection that border set- 
tlements of considerable size will no doubt grow up at 
St. Michaels, at the mouth of the Yukon, at Dyea, and 
at Skaguay. In the expectation that a large number 
of miners and prospectors will winter at St. Michaels 
during the coming season, the North American Trad- 
ing and Transportation Company has asked the gov- 
ernment at Washington that one of the Revenue Cut- 
ters, now in the Bering Sea, be stationed at St. Mich- 
aels this winter instead of going to Seattle or San 
Francisco, as usual. It is believed that the presence of a 
government gun boat, with a crew well armed, would 
have a good effect in showing the government's de- 
termination to preserve order and prevent robbery and 
other forms of outlawry which might otherwise occur 
there. At the time this is being written, our govern- 
ment has not decided what action will be taken in this 
respect. It is expected that a considerable population 
will be more or less permanently settled at St. Mich- 
aels, for which reason immense warehouses are about 
to be built there; besides, it is evident that a con- 
siderable trans-shipping business will be carried on 
at that place. At Dyea and Skaguay, both of which 
places have already a considerable population, per- 
manent towns of considerable size will no doubt grow 
up in the near future, and it may be expected that the 
government which has jurisdiction over these places 
will amply provide for the enforcement of law and 



METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 151 

order. Although access to the Klondike country 
through the passes to the north of these places is not 
impossible, it is not likely that these routes will be 
abandoned, for their passes are being improved, and 
will no doubt continue to be traveled, especially by a 
large proportion of those who leave the Pacific Coast 
to go into the north country light. 

There is another point at which a large border min- 
ing town will no doubt start up with good prospects 
next summer. We refer to some point on the Peace 
River near its head waters. Vast gold deposits have 
already been discovered in this region, both in north- 
ern British Columbia, and along the eastern slopes of 
the Rockies on the banks of the brooks and creeks 
which flow into the upper Peace and Liard rivers. 

But to return to Dawson City, which is a typical 
mining town. It is laid out in rectangular shape into 
town lots. The streets are sixty-six feet wide and the 
whole plat has been regularly entered with the Domin- 
ion government, by Joseph Laduc, its proprietor, as a 
town site. It is situated on a stretch of low ground on 
the northwest bank of the Yukon, a short distance be- 
low the mouth of the Klondike. During the present 
summer a vast majority of its inhabitants lived in tents, 
but a great many houses were built during the season, 
preparatory to the requirements of winter. Some of 
these are quite substantial buildings. It is un- 
fortunately true that the best and most commodious 
buildings in the town, aside from the somewhat exten- 
sive and imposing warehouses of the North American 
Trading and Transportation Company, are occupied 
by saloons and gambling houses; and these places, as 
is the case with all mining centers of population, are 
excessively patronized. Town lots in Dawson City are 
being sold at a high figure, some of them bringing as 
much as $5,000 each. Of course Dawson City is hav- 
ing a boom, and a real estate boom at that. But it is 
having a boom in trade also; for all kinds of supplies 
and provisions that have been taken into the country 



152 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

are being sold to miners at almost fabulous prices, and, 
of course, yielding immense profits. So far as the real 
estate boom is concerned, it will no doubt turn out like 
that of Winnipeg, Manitoba, which continued at high 
water mark from 1880 to 1883, when it collapsed with 
a precipitancy that stranded the entire population of 
that city. But the boom at Dawson City is on, and it 
will continue for two or three years at least, probably 
until the town has reached a population, during cer- 
tain seasons of the year, of 25,000. During the pres- 
ent year the lowest standard of value in actual use 
there, has been the fifty-cent piece, or, in the parlance 
of the town, "four bits." This is the price of the small- 
est article, and takes the place, in small transactions, 
of the penny in our American cities. During 1897 the 
ruling prices at Dawson City have been about as fol- 
lows: 

Flour, per 100 pounds .$ 12.00 

Moose hams, per pound 1.00 

Caribou meat, per pound .65 

Beans, per pound .10 

Rice, per pound .25 

Sugar, per pound .25 

Bacon, per pound .40 

Butter, per roll 1.50 

Eggs, per dozen . . . . : 1.50 

Better eggs, per dozen 2.00 

Salmon, each i.oo@ 1.50 

Potatoes, per pound .25 

Turnips, per pound .15 

Tea, per pound 1.00 

Coffee, per pound .50 

Dried fruits, per pound -35 

Canned fruits, per pound -5° 

Canned meats -75 

Lemons, each .20 

Oranges, each -5° 

Tobacco, per pound 1-5° 



METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 1 53 

Liquors, per drink .50 

Shovels 2.50 

Picks 5-0° 

Coal oil, per gallon 1.00 

Overalls 1.50 

Underwear, per suit 5.oo@ 7.50 

Shoes 5-00 

Rubber boots 10.00@15.00 

Lumber has been selling for $150 per thousand feet, 
rough, and $250 dressed. Wages for unskilled labor 
have run from $10 to $15 per day. This includes car- 
pentering, for most of the joiners that have gone to 
that country up to the present time are called "saw 
and hammer men." Those who have been employed 
in the mines have received from $10 to $15 a day, but 
labor of this kind has been exceedingly scarce. Nearly 
every man who has gone into the country has either 
staked a claim for himself, or insisted upon working on 
shares. There are two or three saw-mills in the neigh- 
borhood of considerable capacity, but that at Dawson 
City is not very large. However, three or four more 
will be in running order early next spring. 

Dawson City is of course a lively mining town. 
The population which has gone in there is of an ex- 
ceedingly heterogeneous character, including a large 
variety of nationalities and men of nearly every phase 
of human experience. Notwithstanding this, up to 
the early fall of the present year (1897) no serious 
breaches of the peace have taken place. One shoot- 
ing event is recorded, but the victim soon recovered, 
and at last reports the offender was in the grasp of 
the Canadian Mounted Police. This force is at Daw- 
son City in considerable strength, and acting under 
and by virtue of Canadian laws, exercises a most salu- 
tary influence upon the conduct of the inhabitants. 
At Dawson City men are not what they appear. 
Everywhere characters are hidden beneath a rough ex- 
terior. One will often meet with a polished college 
11 



154 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

graduate under an exceedingly rough garb. In Daw- 
son City one may sit down and discuss almost any sub- 
ject, including the widest range of science, literature 
and religion, with one having the general appearance 
of a highway tramp, and who, if casually met with in 
the state of Illinois, would be regarded as the veriest 
hobo. There is nothing in the way of what we call 
style in Dawson City. Bar-keepers do not wear boiled 
shirts, nor are those who preside at the piano or 
manipulate other musical instruments in the coarse 
dance-houses dressed in the garb of dudes. 

Gold scales are found in every trading place in Daw- 
son City, and the greater proportion of local retail 
traffic is carried on with gold dust as a medium of ex- 
change. Dance-halls may be found in the rear of al- 
most every saloon. There is also an apartment con- 
nected with almost every drinking place devoted to 
gambling, where the miner parts with his money or 
gold dust to satisfy his thirst for speculation. The 
liquors sold in these drinking places are of a vile char- 
acter, much of them being compounded with drugs 
on the spot, and containing very small proportions of 
real whisky, gin or brandy. 

It will not be a surprise to the reader that a large 
proportion of the inhabitants of the mining towns are 
addicted to drinking and gambling. Those who go 
into such a country are of a venturesome, speculating 
spirit, and the time not occupied in actual mining 
hangs heavily on their hands. Such restless spirits 
are always sure to engage in any excesses for which 
there are opportunities. But of course not all those 
who face the hardships of that country are addicted 
to the liquor habit or the game of chance. There are 
many sober, industrious people in the Golden North, 
and many more will follow them, who devote their time 
and energies to delving in the mines both winter and 
summer, or to grappling with other tasks, and who 
frequent neither the dance hall, the card room, nor 



METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 1 55 

the drinking bar. These are the men who succeed 
best, and who bring most gold out of the country. 

There are many excellent women at Dawson City, 
notably Mrs. Capt. J. J. Healy, who has a quartz mine 
known as the Four Leaf Clover, on the west side of 
the Yukon opposite the mouth of the Klondike, which 
promises to yield enormous riches. Most of the 
women at this town are with their husbands, whose 
fortunes they are sharing bravely. Some of them, 
however, are working in various independent ways to 
improve their own circumstances. It is notable that 
several of the most fortunate men now struggling for 
wealth in the gulches of the Klondike region are ac- 
companied by their wives. In this connection, it is 
noted with regret that the Canadian laws do not recog- 
nize a married Woman's property rights, hence she 
cannot locate a claim in addition to that of her hus- 
band; but she can otherwise aid and assist him in 
ways of incalculable value. It was observable in the 
gold mining camp region, throughout the present 
year, that married men became very desirous of hav- 
ing their wives join them, while the unmarried men 
were sending letters to their sweethearts whom they 
had left behind, at considerable pains and expense. 

There is a class of women at Dawson City, how- 
ever, who constitute the worst element of the town. 
Fortunately the number is not large. These charac- 
ters frequent the dance halls, and, as in all the years of 
the past, follow the miners through every danger and 
hardship. To his great credit, Inspector Constantine, 
who is at the head of the Mounted Police force at 
Dawson City, manages to keep the disreputable ele- 
ment under very strict control. 

As before stated, the currency of Dawson City is 
for the greater part gold dust. One entering a place 
to trade, or a saloon to drink, has a quantity of gold 
dust weighed out, which he exchanges for chips of 
various denominations. These chips he, in turn, ex- 



156 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

changes at the place where they were obtained for 
whatever he chooses to purchase. 

Dawson City is a most delightful place during the 
short summer season. Daylight is continuous, and 
one fortunate enough to possess a book or newspaper 
may read without artificial light every hour out of the 
twenty-four. Of course the mosquito and little black 
fly keep up an unceasing annoyance, but this is really 
the only drawback to one's happiness while in the 
town. The climate is excellent and there are no dis- 
eases of any sort arising from climatic conditions. In 
the winter season it is very cold, but with proper sup- 
plies one will not suffer from the extremes of winter 
temperature. The atmosphere is exceedingly dry, 
and a person can endure with much less suffering 
twenty degrees more cold than in the more humid dis- 
tricts of our own northwest. 

A newspaper is about to be established at Dawson 
City, and in a short time the place will be in tele- 
graphic communication with the outside world. 
Steamers already arrive frequently by way of the Yu- 
kon during the summer season, but the winters will be 
greatly enlivened and improved when telegraphic com- 
munication shall have been established between it and 
the regions of civilization. At present the only ex- 
citing news in the town, aside from the arrival of 
steamboats, consists in fresh gold discoveries. When 
the latter are authenticated, they always result in a 
stampede for the locality in which the important finds 
have been made, and in the staking out of new claims. 
It may be mentioned in this connection that during 
1897 the policy of the miners in the Klondike region 
has shown too much vacillation. Men have gone 
from one location to another whenever reports indi- 
cated that there were deposits further on, richer than 
those which they were working. In this way many 
good claims have been abandoned, which, in the fu- 
ture, will no doubt be taken up by others and success- 
fully worked. A part of this constant changing of 



METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 1 57 

location has been due to the preference for coarse 
gold. Miners will always forsake the work of wash- 
ing fine gold dust from gravel or sand for the prospect 
of locating a placer claim where coarse gold is known 
to exist. 

During 1897 (as will no doubt be the case during 
1898), the frequent discoveries of rich gold deposits 
have kept Dawson City up to fever heat of excite- 
ment. It is almost impossible for one located in the 
great cities of civilization to realize the high pitch of 
excitement which almost constantly prevails in a bor- 
der mining town. Old experienced miners are fre- 
quently disgusted with themselves when they hear of 
the rich "strikes" which "green-horns" are constantly 
making. A party of the latter will sometimes start 
out for a point which has been prospected by veteran 
miners and adjudged to be worthless, and will return 
with the most sensational reports, bringing with them 
ample evidence, in virgin gold, of the truthfulness of 
the stories they tell. Then the "old time miners" look 
into one another's faces with expressions of the deep- 
est mortification. It is a fact that during the present 
year more rich "strikes" were made in the Klondike 
country by "green-horns" and "tenderfeet" than by 
the most grizzled and weather-beaten miners of the 
experienced type. The latter have to a great extent 
followed in the footsteps of the former, and in this 
way have located and staked out their best claims. 
Nevertheless, while they have not been the discover- 
ers of the richest gold deposits, they have proven 
themselves to be the most successful miners when a 
profitable location has been made. Then it is that 
the value of experience comes into play ; for, one who 
has been trained to operate with the pan, the rocker 
and the sluice, no matter how crude the apparatus may 
be, can wash out more gold in a single day than can 
the inexperienced miner in a whole week. 

At present dogs do most of the hauling in that coun- 
try, but horses may be successfully and not very ex- 



158 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

pensively kept there, so that in another year the dis- 
tribution of supplies will no doubt be carried on from 
Dawson City to the mining camps not only by 'boat 
along the rivers, but also by means of horses. Ar- 
rangements for sending a vast number of these useful 
animals to that region are already being made. The 
country around Dawson City is also pretty well adapt- 
ed to the maintenance of cattle,, and beef may be pro- 
duced in districts not far distant at but little expense. 
There is room for at least a dozen more saw-mills in 
the Klondike country, and a greater degree of com- 
petition in trade and transportation will prove of value 
not only to those engaged in these lines, but to the 
miners and settlers generally. 

Mission churches have been established at Dawson 
City by both Protestants and Roman Catholics, and 
the condition of society is rapidly improving. New 
business enterprises are starting up and the place is 
rapidly taking on the air of an important commercial 
center. The only competition of any importance in 
that country is between the North American Trading 
and Transportation Company and the Alaska Com- 
mercial Company, but this is of considerable advan- 
tage, and is likely to prove more beneficial next year 
than it has during the present one. The business of 
the first named corporation at Dawson City is in 
charge of Capt. John J. Healy. He was the origina- 
tor of the company, and it was through his personal 
efforts that John Cudahy and P. B. Weare of Chicago 
were induced to make large investments in the enter- 
prise. Out in the far north, Capt. Healy, who is well 
known in Chicago, and in Grand Army circles almost 
everywhere, is a very important individual. Down in 
Chicago, one might speak of the organization as "Cu- 
dahy's Company" or "Weare's Company," but in the 
Klondike it is "Capt. Healy's Company." The Alaska 
Commercial Company's business at Dawson City is in 
charge of Capt. J. E. Hansen, who is an energetic, lib- 
eral minded and public spirited young man. 



METROPOLIS OF THE KLONDIKE. 1 59 

Capt. Healy and his wife have a comfortable home 
at Dawson City. He moved there from Fort Cu- 
dahy some time ago. He was one of the first to pros- 
pect for gold in that vicinity, and five years ago located 
a valuable quartz mine, which is now owned by his 
wife, who has named it the "Four Leaf Clover" mine, 
to which reference has already been made. The 
blacksmith shops at Dawson City are doing well, and 
there is room for one or two more. The same re- 
marks will apply to barber shops, bakeries and laun- 
dries. A very large lodging house has been put up 
at Dawson City during the present season, where 
board and lodgings are provided, and where the price 
of a meal is $1.50 for the regulation fare, which in- 
cludes nothing in the way of luxuries. There are sev- 
eral other restaurants in the city, all in a flourishing 
condition. 

The facilities in the Klondike for sending money to 
and from the United States are about to be very much 
improved. Wells, Fargo & Co. are establishing a 
branch of their business in Dawson, and this will fur- 
nish the opportunity for miners to send gold to their 
friends and families in this country at a reasonable cost 
for transportation and with almost perfect security. 

Among the more notable women at Dawson City, 
aside from Mrs. Capt. Healy, are Mrs. Clarence J. 
Berry and Mrs. E. F. Gage, wife of the son of Lyman J. 
Gage, Secretary of the United States Treasury. The 
latter was in the country when the first Klondike dis- 
coveries were made, and soon after returned to Chica- 
go. She embarked again for the Klondike in the early 
autumn of the present year. Her husband is auditor 
of the North American Transportation and Trading 
Company. 

On the return of Mrs. Gage to Chicago in July, 
1897, she made the following statement concerning 
her experiences in the far north: 

"It is wonderful how fascinating the life on the 
frontier becomes. The man or woman who gets a 



160 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

taste of it and succeeds and thrives by it, rarely gets 
to like anything else. It may be a barbarous confes- 
sion, but it seems to me that the kindest, most consid- 
erate and most practically honest people that I ever 
met are the miners who are risking all at one throw 
in the work on the Klondike. It was here that I saw 
a code of honor which made all men honest — a life in 
which each man must live a fair part or get a forcible 
and roughly polite invitation to move. 

"It takes men of sturdy character to get into the val- 
ley, and the virtues which the> cling to are ones from 
which they want no man to part. I do not think that 
I heard of a single case in my summer's stay in upper 
Alaska where prospectors and diggers had been guilty 
of dishonesty. It may be that honesty is a trait which 
thrives because it is backed by the point of a gun, but 
it is there nevertheless. Explorers going to the field 
or miners coming out, frequently undertake greater 
loads than the teams can pull through. It is the cus- 
tom at such times to put the surplus at the roadside 
and go on with half. The part left behind is perfectly 
safe until it shall be called for. I doubt that this rule 
would work in Chicago or other civilized places." 



NORTHWEST ROUTES TO GOLD FIELDS. l6l 



CHAPTER XXII. 
NORTHWEST ROUTES TO GOLD FIELDS. 

Description of trail by the Lewis and Peace rivers— Short 
and cheap cut to the Klondike — Route by the Pelly and 
Liard rivers. 

The route from and to the Klondike country by way 
of the Lewis and Peace rivers, and across the moun- 
tains between them, is already being traveled and is 
likely to become a popular one during the latter part 
of the approaching winter and early spring. A party 
recently organized in Chicago has started out over 
this route, in charge of Lambertus Warmolts. Con- 
cerning the trip he made the following statement be- 
fore leaving: 

"We estimate we will make the trip from Edmonton 
to Peel River in twenty-three days. I have traveled 
the same route before, having been in that country 
all winter three years ago on a hunting expedition. 

"There is only one portage to make, of sixteen 
miles, near the foot of Lake Athabasca, and there is a 
horse tramway there, built by the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany, that makes it easy. In fact the whole trip to the 
Peel River is dotted with the company's posts. Their 
steamers will take us down Great Silver Lake, and 
the trip will not be a hard one until we reach the 
Peel. 

"There we will knock our boats to pieces and build 
sledges. We are going to haul our stuff the rest of 
the way. We go up the Peel about 250 miles, and will 
use sails, the wind being almost always from the north 
in winter. We will have to make a trip across about 
fifty miles of snow fields from the head of the Peel to 
the head of the Beaver. We have not decided yet 



162 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

which to strike. We will work between the head 
waters of those two streams." 

The Beaver above referred to is of course the Peace 
River. 

From the junction of the Pelly and Lewis rivers, at 
Fort Selkirk, this route is by the Lewis River, which 
has already been fully described. Considerably above 
Vatchee Lake this river divides, the two branches find- 
ing their source in lakes of considerable size not far 
west of Dease'Lake. The latter lies southwest of the 
Blue Mountains, a part of the Rocky Mountain chain. 
On the southwestern shore of this lake js Dease House, 
a Hudson's Bay trading station. South of the lake 
and between the mountain ranges which lie along, in 
an east and west direction, north of Fort Mumford on 
the one hand, and to the south of Dease Lake on the 
other, is a very convenient pass extending to the head 
waters of the Peace River. There are no records at 
hand which give the height above sea level of this pass, 
but it is between 2,000 and 2,500 feet, and is one of the 
easiest passes for pack travel through the northern 
Rocky Mountain range, and is convenient throughout 
its whole distance, during a greater part of the year, 
for bob-sled or buck-board travel. The Lewis River 
is left at about the 131st degree of longitude and the 
head waters of the Peace River are reached at about 
the 128th degree, which, in that latitude, is not more 
than one hundred and twenty-five miles. Stretches of 
the head waters of the Peace River may be navigated, 
with slight interruptions, to "Old Fort," and below it 
to Fort Dunvegan, and below it Fort au Tremble, and 
still below that to Fort Vermilion at the Falls, and 
from the Falls at Red River Fort, where the Red joins 
the Peace River, to Lake Athabasca at Fort Chippew- 
yan. This is one of the most convenient routes of 
travel that can be adopted for reaching the Klondike 
country. It may be used successfully during any por- 
tion of the year except in the springtime, when, for 
about forty days, when excessive freshets prevail in 



NORTHWEST ROUTES TO GOLD FIELDS. 163 

the mountain streams, covering the lowlands with 
much water. 

The distance from Lake Athabasca to Edmonton, 
which is on the north branch of the Saskatchewan 
River, is not great, and may be traveled almost en- 
tirely by water during the summer months, and in 
winter by sleds. At Edmonton the Canadian Pacific 
Railway is reached, which will carry the traveler to 
Pacific or southwestern points of civilization. 

This whole route may be covered from Edmonton 
in the Canadian Northwest to Fort Selkirk at the 
junction of the Lewis and Pelly rivers, or to the Klon- 
dike country in about three months. It may be trav- 
eled from Edmonton to the rich gold fields on the up- 
per Peace and Liard river systems in about two months 
or less, and by water and land to those points or to the 
Klondike regions beyond the mountains. Any quan- 
tity of horses and supplies may be transported over- 
land, in winter or summer, by the use of boats, sleds 
and wagons, and at little cost. There is an abun- 
dance of wild fowl and game of all kinds throughout 
this whole country, and in season grasses of most lux- 
uriant growth abound everywhere. In the winter sea- 
son native horses will paw the snow from the ground 
in the lower levels and subsist in excellent condition 
with one feed of oats daily; but in the mountain sec- 
tion the snow is too deep to permit of this method of 
subsistence. Everywhere along the route there is 
excellent timber, and one will not travel more than 
one hundred miles in any direction without finding a 
hospitable stopping place at or near some thriving 
Hudson's Bay trading post. 

The more northern route is by the Pelly River to 
Lake Frances, which finds its bed well into the Rocky 
Mountain region; on the western shore of this lake is 
Fort Francis, an old Hudson's Bay trading station. 
Near this fort to the south, and exactly on the 130th 
degree of longitude, is the entrance to one of the most 
accessible passes in the Rocky Mountains. Fort 



164 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Francis and Lake Frances are upon the highest eleva- 
tion of the Rockies in this region, and as one enters 
the pass north of the Blue Mountain range he imme- 
diately meets with the head waters, of the Liard River, 
and begins to descend the mountains towards the al- 
luvial plains of the upper Mackenzie system. The 
Liard River is descended to Fort Halkepp, a Hud- 
son's Bay trading post, on its banks. A considerable 
distance below this post the river turns abruptly north- 
ward and flows down to the Mackenzie, joining it at 
Fort Simpson. The Liard River may be left at the 
turn where one of its branches flows due south; this 
may be followed to a point where the traveler can 
proceed overland, traversing a beautiful park or prai- 
rie -country, until Fort au Tremble, another Hudson's 
Bay trading post, on the Peace River, is reached. 
From that point the route is southeastward over the 
same line that would be traversed in coming out of the 
Peace River Valley. 

The head waters of the Liard and Peace rivers, 
which reach far up into the Rocky Mountains, are re- 
enforced everywhere by innumerable smaller streams 
flowing into them and connecting with still smaller 
currents. Here and there are unexplored creeks and 
brooks draining one of the richest auriferous moun- 
tain-slope districts to be found anywhere in North 
America. It is because of the gold discoveries al- 
ready reported from this region, and of those that are 
sure to be made known hereafter, that the two routes 
last mentioned are certain to become popular and 
much traveled by those who will go from these fields 
of civilization into the higher latitudes in search of 
gold. 

There is not a great deal of difference between the 
distances or the time occupied in making the journey 
over these natural lines of travel. The Peace River 
trail is the shortest, but passes over greater altitudes, 
while that by way of the Liard River is of course the 
longest, being farther to the north; but the mountain 



NORTHWEST ROUTES TO GOLD FIELDS. 165 

paths leading from its upper waters to Lake Francis, 
which is the chief source of the Pelly River, is con- 
siderable lower than that from the source of the Peace 
River to the lakes at the head of the Lewis. 

In addition to this the overland route to be traveled 
on the summit of the Rockies between the two points 
last named is much greater than that of the more 
northern line of travel ; the head of Liard River is not 
more than ten miles from Lake Francis, which is the 
principal source of Pelly River. 

One feature common to both of these routes is not 
enjoyed by any other line of travel leading to the 
Klondike country; it consists in the fact that during 
the winter months very high temperatures, compara- 
tively speaking, are recorded in the passes named. 
This is due to low altitudes and to the northern Chi- 
nook winds which blow from the Pacific through all 
the mountain passes of that region, constantly pouring 
a mighty volume of warm atmosphere upon the al- 
luvial park and prairie plains of the Peace and Mac- 
kenzie River basins. The snowfall is less than in any 
of the mountain ranges either to the south of it or on 
the western coast, and one may travel throughout all 
this region during the coldest winter months without 
suffering to any extent, if properly clad. We do not 
hesitate to state from the authenticated information in 
our possession that these are by all odds the best 
routes for reaching the gold fields of the far north; 
and, what is more, they are pre-eminently winter routes 
and may be traveled quite as successfully during the 
cold season as during the warm months of summer, 
and vastly more so than in the springtime, when the 
country is somewhat flooded for a little over a month. 



166 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

YUKON AND JUNEAU ROUTES. 

Description of St. Michaels — Temperature and ice — Season 
of navigation on the Yukon— "Fort Get There" — The 
Dyea and Skaguay passes. 

The gold seeker who reaches the Klondike country 
by the St. Michaels route will occupy a longer time 
from the start to the finish of his journey than by any 
other line of travel open. From Pacific ports he may 
take his choice, if traveling by St. Michaels and the 
Yukon, of the North American Trading and Trans- 
portation Company or Alaska Commercial Company 
steamers. The town of St. Michaels, at the mouth of 
the Yukon, is a carelessly built collection of old Rus- 
sian structures, the principal features of which are the 
warehouses of the companies doing business on the 
river. A number of independent traders also have 
warehouses there of considerable extent. 

At the close of the present summer St. Michaels had 
a white population of about 500, mostly transient, 
although it was expected that a still larger number 
would winter there. The place includes about 300 
Eskimos or Innuits, who are going and coming to and 
fro in the fur and fish trade. There are no trees on 
the island upon which St. Michaels is located, but it 
is well covered with grass during the summer season. 
Its surface is quite undulating and presents a pleasing 
aspect. Of course it is not as cold at St. Michaels as 
in the interior. The average temperature for the 
twelve months in the year 1896 is recorded as follows: 

January • — 5 April 22.1 

February — 6 May 32.8 

March 9.5 June 45.2 



YUKON AND JUNEAU ROUTES. 167 

July 53.1 October 28.0 

August 52.1 November 18.3 

September 43.3 December 8.9 

The season of snowfall begins about the first of Oc- 
tober, and by the middle of the month ice has formed 
at the mouth of the Yukon. Navigation closes about 
the middle of September, however, for the upper part 
of the river freezes much sooner than its mouth. 
When the ice once forms, it remains fast until the end 
of the first week in June, when it breaks up and flows 
into the sea. The river is cleared in about ten days. 

Near to the town proper is a station of the North 
American Transportation and Trading Company, to 
which the name of "Fort Get There" has been given. 
All merchandise, supplies and passengers are trans- 
shipped at St. Michals and "Fort Get There" by the 
respective transportation companies. This is done be- 
cause a class of steamers of lighter draught than those 
which traverse the ocean are required for the river 
traffic. Then the trip is made up the river, through 
the country which we have already described, for about 
1,750 miles to Dawson City. Different authorities 
give us different lengths of this route, ranging from 
1,650 to 1,800 miles. It is probably about the latter 
distance from St. Michaels to the junction of the Lewis 
and Pelly rivers at old Fort Selkirk. 

Fresh salmon is almost a constant diet on board the 
river steamers until one becomes tired of it. The 
route by which one travels does not make much dif- 
ference as to the kind of clothing and character of 
supplies he should take with him into the Klondike 
country, for these necessaries are for his use after he 
arrives rather than during the journey. 

Perhaps next in importance to the Yukon is the 
Juneau route, the starting point of which may be 
reached from any of the Pacific ports. Juneau is the 
largest city in Alaska, and will probably continue to be 
such. Dawson City, which has already passed it in 



168 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

population and commercial importance, is located in 
the Canadian Northwest. Juneau is situated on the 
mainland on level ground between the sea and lofty 
mountains which rise nearly 4,000 feet above the sea 
level. These mountains are capped with perpetual 
snow and ice. The town was founded by Joseph 
Juneau and Richard Harris in 1880. This Joseph 
Juneau is a nephew of the Juneau of history, who 
founded the city of Milwaukee, Wis. The city has a 
population at the present time of about 3,000, five or 
six hundred of which are constantly going and com- 
ing. It has a pretty good waterworks system, an 
electric light plant, and two flourishing newspapers. 

From Juneau the traveler proceeds by Lynn Chan- 
nel, which has two sources or inlets, called Chilcat and 
Chilkoot. These inlets lead respectively up to the 
passes of the same names. The former is not very 
well known and has not been extensively traveled up 
to the present time. It has been called the "Dalton 
Trail." The White Pass is being greatly improved and 
has been recently much used from Skaguay. There 
is some talk of the Canadian Government construct- 
ing a wagon-road through this pass in order to ascer- 
tain its advantages as a railway route. It is now gen- 
erally believed that this pass will prove superior to 
that of the Chilkoot, which has heretofore been much 
more generally traveled. To reach either the Chilkoot 
or White passes, the route from Juneau is by Dyea or 
Skaguay, which is only eight miles. Dyea has be- 
come quite a town. It had for many years been a 
thriving Indian village and trading post. 

From Dyea, through the Chilkoot Pass, the route 
leads to Lake Lindemann. The distance is a little 
less than thirty miles. The ascent and descent through 
this pass from Dyea to Lake Lindemann are very 
steep, but the highest elevation reached is not more 
than 3,000 feet above sea level, although the snow- 
crowned mountains on either side of the traveler reach 
thousands of feet into the clouds. We have already 



YUKON AND JUNEAU ROUTES. 169 

fully described the routes of travel from Lake Linde- 
mann and Lake Bennett, at the northern termini of 
these passes, to the Lewis River, which is the first ob- 
jective point of all travelers through them. 

Near Dyea and to the east of it is Skaguay, where 
there is a considerable town of delayed miners, and 
from which many depart to scale the mountain passes 
for the Klondike country. It will be some time be- 
fore travel in these regions will demonstrate which is 
the preferable pass over the mountains, but, as before 
stated, it is likely that a considerable volume of travel 
and transportation will continue to seek these routes. 



12 



170 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
ALASKAN BOUNDARY QUESTION. 

Alaskan boundary controversy and correspondence be- 
tween the United States and Dominion of Canada — 
Population of Alaska — Increase owing' to gold dis- 
coveries. 

Returning to Alaska proper we take a farewell sur- 
vey of that territory, considering very briefly the 
boundary question, the population, the towns and trad- 
ing posts, the fur trade, the seal and other fisheries, 
the commerce and transportation facilities, institutions, 
etc. In the treaty of session of March 30, 1867, by 
which the United States acquired Alaska, the bounda- 
ries between the territory and the British possessions 
were defined as: 

"Commencing from the southermost point of the 
island called Prince of Wales Island, which point lies 
in the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes north latitude, 
and between the 131st and 133d degree of west longi- 
tude (meridian of Greenwich), the said line shall ascend 
to the north along the channel called Portland Chan- 
nel as far as the point of the continent where it strikes 
the 56th degree of north latitude; from this last-men- 
tioned point, the line of demarcation shall follow the 
summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast 
as far as the point of intersection of the 141st degree 
of west longitude (of the same meridian) ; and finally, 
from the said point of intersection, the said meridian 
line of the 141st degree, in its prolongation as far as 
the Frozen Ocean." 

" With reference to the line of demarcation laid down 
in the preceding article, it is understood — 

"1st. That the island called Prince of Wales Island 



ALASKAN BOUNDARY QUESTION. 171 

shall belong wholly to Russia (now, by this cession, to 
the United States). 

"2d. That whenever the summit of the mountains 
which extend in a direction parallel to the coast from 
the 56th degree of north latitude to the point of inter- 
section of the 141st degree of west longitude shall 
prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine 
leagues from the ocean, the limit between the British 
possessions and the line of coast which is to belong to 
Russia as above mentioned (that is to say, the limit 
to the possessions ceded by this convention) shall be 
formed by a line parallel to the winding of the coast, 
and which shall never exceed the distance of ten ma- 
rine leagues therefrom." 

The treaty of cession was concluded March 30, 1867, 
and the consideration first agreed upon was $7,000,- 
000, but when it was learned that there was a fur com- 
pany and also an ice company enjoying monopolies 
under the Russian government, it was thought best 
that these should be extinguished; hence the United 
States added $200,000 to the original amount agreed 
upon, in consideration of which the Russian govern- 
ment handed the territory over free of all incum- 
brances. 

Not long after the territory was annexed the eastern 
boundary line of Alaska became a subject of some con- 
troversy between the United States and the British 
governments. In 1872, President Grant recommend- 
ed a commission to deal with the matter, but Congress 
took no action. In 1886, President Cleveland asked 
Congress for an appropriation of $100,000 for a pre- 
liminary survey of the frontier territory. 

During the winter of 1887-88 informal conferences 
were held in Washington between Prof. W. H. Dall, 
of the United States Geological Survey, and Dr. 
George M. Dawson, of Canada, both authorities on the 
Territory of Alaska, but the conferences led to no re- 
sult. On August 20, 1895, Lord Gough inquired of 
Secretary Olney if a joint surveyor could not be ap- 



1J2. THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

pointed to act with Mr. William Ogilvie, who was then 
about to survey the intersection of the 141st degree and 
the Yukon River. The acting Secretary of State 
asked if the proposed survey could not be delayed un- 
til Congress had had an opportunity to consider the 
question. This suggestion was transmitted to the 
Canadian government, which answered that the season 
was so far advanced that it would not be possible to 
communicate with Mr. Ogilvie before the next sum- 
mer, when a considerable portion of the 141st degree 
would already be marked on the ground. An extract 
from a letter by Secretary Olney, dated March 11, 
1896, was as follows: 

"So far as the recent and existing surveys on either 
side have progressed they exhibit a close coincidence 
of results. At one point, as I am informed, the dif- 
ference between Mr. Ogilvie's location and that made 
by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey is 
only about 6 feet 7 inches. In another point the dif- 
ference is in the neighborhood of 500 or 600 feet, and 
at other points even closer coincidence than this lat- 
ter is expected when the comparison of calculations 
shall have been worked out." 

Mr. Olney proposed that the two governments 
should agree upon certain points of the 141st degree 
at the intersection of the principal streams, locating 
the same at a point midway between the determina- 
tions of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and of Mr. 
Ogilvie, and providing for the junction of the points so 
located by convenient joint surveys, as occasion should 
require, until the entire line should be established. 
This would supply a permanent line which for interna- 
tional purposes would be coincident with the 145th 
degree, stipulated under existing treaties, and would 
require no further immediate arrangement than the 
dispatch of a joint surveying party to set up monu- 
ments at the points denned, with perhaps the survey of 
a traverse line connecting the monuments on the Yu- 
kon and Forty Mile Creek, and farther south if neces- 



ALASKAN BOUNDARY QUESTION. 173 

sary. The Canadian government agreed to this prop- 
osition, and the convention is now pending before the 
Senate of the United States. 

No accurate estimate of the population of Alaska 
was made until the census of 1890. In 1868, in a re- 
port by Major General Halleck, the number given was 
82,400. In the same year, the Rev. Vincent Collyer, 
in his report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 
added 11,900 Thlinket Indians to the number given 
by General Halleck, making 94,300, while Ivan Pe- 
troff, special agent for the tenth census (1880), states 
the population as 33,426. The census of 1890, which 
is the first detailed statement, fixes the number at 32,- 
052, which is made up of 4,298 white, 23,531 Indians, 
2,288 Mongolians, and 1,935 mixed blood. The gold 
discoveries of the Klondike region during the present 
year have had the effect of increasing the population of 
Alaska by about 10,000. 



1-74 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

CHAPTER XXV. 
TOWNS AND TRADING POSTS OF ALASKA. 

Sitka and Juneau — St. Michaels and the trading posts of the 
Aleutian Islands — Douglas City and the great Treadwell 
gold mine — Trade and traffic. 

Sitka is the capital of Alaska. It is located in 57 
degrees north and 135 degrees 17 minutes west, on a 
low strip of land on the west of Baranof Island. The 
population at the present time is about 3,000. An in- 
dustrial school is conducted in the city and is in a 
flourishing condition. . Of course salmon fishing and 
canning is the chief industry. Steamers ply quite fre- 
quently between Sitka and Portland, Oregon. The 
harbor is small but safe. 

The January temperature for Sitka for more than 
forty years averages 31.4 above zero. The rainfall for 
thirty years averages 84.06 inches annually. The win- 
ters at this place are much milder than those of many 
European cities. By the inner passage, between the 
archipelago and the coast of British Columbia and 
Alaska, the distance from Portland, Oregon, to Sitka 
is 1,647 miles; large sailing vessels have to go outside. 
Juneau is located near the Lynn Channel, by which 
there are trails to the Yukon. Mr. Wilson says that 
the year 1895 witnessed a great improvement in the 
town, and Juneau is to-day a progressive city, with 
fine buildings, wharves, electric lights, waterworks, 
hotels, etc. Wrangell, on the northern part of the 
island of the same name, is about ten miles from the 
mouth of the Stikine, and is the point of departure for 
traders and miners penetrating into the interior by 
way of that river. Douglas City, on Douglas Island, 
near Juneau, has a population of about 600. Here the 
celebrated Treadwell gold mine is located with the 



TOWNS AND TRADING POSTS OF ALASKA. 175 

largest quartz 'mill in the world. The mine has 
proved a great success financially. 

Joseph P. Smith, director of the Bureau of Ameri- 
can Republics, in a document recently issued, speaks 
of the principal towns and trading posts of Alaska as 
follows : 

"Yakutat (population 308) is on Yakutat Bay. Nu- 
chek is situated on Hinchinbrook Island, 432 miles by 
sea from Sitka, and 50 miles from the mouth of the 
Copper River. It was formerly an important trading 
post,- but much of the commerce has been transferred. 
St. Paul, on the northern part of Kadiak Island, does 
a large fur trade. There are a number of salmon can- 
neries on the island, employing in 1890, according to 
Longman's Gazetteer, 1,100 hands. Karluk (popula- 
tion 1,123) is said to have the largest cannery in the 
world. Kadiak (495), Alitak (420), and Afognak (409) 
are other villages on the island. 

"On the Aleutian Islands there are many settle- 
ments. The one on Ounga Island has a population 
of about 200, according to Mr. Petroff. Belkowsky, on 
the southern end of the Aliasla Peninsula, has 300 in- 
habitants. Near Protassof (100 inhabitants) there are 
warm sulphur springs and ponds. Iliuliuk, on Un- 
alaska Island, is a point of considerable commercial 
importance, having a church, custom house, trading es- 
tablishments, wharves, etc. Nikolsky, on the south 
of Unimak Island, has 127 inhabitants: it was for- 
merly much larger. Nazan, on Athka Island, has a 
population of 230, described by Mr. Petroff as thrifty 
and prosperous. St. Paul, on the Pribilof Islands, has 
a population of 398. The Amukhta and the Unimak 
are the two safe passes between the islands. 

"St. Michaels, on Norton Sound, is one of the most 
important localities on the coast. It is a trading post, 
says Mr. Petroff, where rival firms have established 
their depots for the Yukon River and Arctic trade. 
The station keepers come down from the interior to 
the coast at the end of June or first of July, and each 



176 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

receives his allotment of goods to take back with him 
in sailboats and bidars during the few months when 
navigation on the river is not impeded by ice. The 
vessels supplying this depot can seldom approach the 
post before the end of June, on account of large bodies 
of drifting ice that beset the waters of Norton Sound 
and the straits between St. Lawrence Island and the 
Yukon delta. 

"Port Clarence, on the bay of the same name, is the 
place where whalers wait for their tenders before pro- 
ceeding through the straits. The harbor is excellent. 
There is a reindeer farm here. The population num- 
bers 485. Point Hope (population 301), Cape Lis- 
burne, Icy Cape, and Point Barrow are the most im- 
portant points on the northern coast. 

"Nulato and Nuklakayet are trading posts on the 
Yukon River, the former being 467 miles from the 
sea, according to Lieutenant Allen, and Nuklakayer, 
201 miles farther. Fort Yukon (about 300 miles dis- 
tant from Nuklakayer) was formerly a trading post. 
Lieutenant Schwatka says it was abandoned about 
1880 as not remunerative, and Fort Reliance and Belle 
Isle were established. Both of these have since been 
abandoned. At Fort Yukon the river is said to be 
seven miles wide." 

Circle City, on the Yukon, near the international 
boundary line, has become quite a trading center, but 
when gold was discovered on the Klondike most of its 
inhabitants moved to Dawson City, in Canadian terri- 
tory. 



THE FUR-SEAL CONTROVERSY. 177 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE FUR-SEAL CONTROVERSY. 

Account of the fur-sealing grounds, and their great value — 
The annual catch— Pelagic sealing — History of the 
great controversy — Solution of all difficulties practi- 
cally accomplished. 

We are indebted to the argument made by James 
C. Carter, on behalf of the United States, before the 
Tribunal of Arbitration in Paris in 1893, for the fol- 
lowing instructive observations on the Alaskan fur- 
seal resources and controversy: During most of the 
eighteenth century, as all are aware, the efforts and 
ambitions of various European powers were directed 
toward the taking possession, the settlement, and the 
colonization of the temperate and tropical parts of the 
American continent. In those efforts Russia seems 
to have taken a comparatively small part, if any part 
at all. Her enterprise and ambitions were attracted 
to these northern seas, seas which border upon the 
coasts which in part she already possessed, the Siber- 
ian coast of Bering Sea. From that, coast explora- 
tions were made by enterprising navigators belonging 
to that nation, until the whole of Bering Sea was dis- 
covered, and the coasts on all its sides explored. The 
Aleutian Islands, forming its southern boundary, were 
discovered and explored, and a part of what is called 
the Northwest Coast of the American Continent, south 
of the Alaskan Peninsula and reaching south as far as 
the 54th or 50th degree of north latitude, was also ex- 
plored by Russian navigators, and establishments were 
formed upon it in certain places. The great object of 
Russia in these enterprises and explorations was to 
reap for herself the sole profit and the sole benefit 
which could be derived from these remote and ice- 
bound regions, namely, that of the fur-bearing animals 
which inhabited them, and which were gathered by 



178 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the native inhabitants. To obtain for herself the bene- 
fit of those animals and of the trade with the natives 
who were engaged in gathering them constituted the 
main object of the original enterprises prosecuted by 
Russian navigators. They had at a very early period 
discovered what we call the Commander Islands on the 
western side of Bering Sea, which were then, as they 
are now, one of the principal resorts and breeding 
places of the fur seals. They were carrying on a very 
large, or a considerable, industry in connection with 
those animals upon those islands. 

Prior to the year 1787, one of their navigators, Cap- 
tain Pribilof, had observed very numerous bodies of 
fur seals making their way northward through the 
Aleutian chain. Whither they were going, he knew 
not, but, from his knowledge of the habits of the seals 
in the region of the Commander Islands, he could not 
but suppose that there was, somewhere north of the 
Aleutian chain in the Bering Sea, another great breed- 
ing place and resort for these animals. He therefore 
expended much labor in endeavoring to discover these 
resorts, and in the year 1786, on one of his voyages, 
he suddenly found himself in the presence of that tre- 
mendous roar, a roar almost like that of Niagara, it is 
said, which proceeds from the countless multitudes of 
animals upon the islands. He knew then that the ob- 
ject for which he was seeking had been obtained; and 
waiting until the fog had lifted, he discovered before 
him the islands to which his name was afterwards 
given. That was in 1786. Immediately following 
that discovery many Russians, sometimes individually 
and sometimes associated in companies, resorted to 
those islands, which were uninhabited, and made large 
captures of seals from them. The mode of taking 
them was by an indiscriminate slaughter of males and 
females; and of course it was not long before the 
disastrous effects of that method became apparent. 
They were greatly reduced in numbers, and at one or 
more times seemed to be upon the point almost of 



THE FUR-SEAL CONTROVERSY. 1 79 

commercial extermination. By degrees, those engaged 
in this pursuit learned what the laws of nature were in 
respect to the preservation of such a race of animals. 
They learned- that they were highly polygamous in 
their nature, and that a certain draft could be taken 
from the superfluous males without sensibly depre- 
ciating the enormous numbers of the herd. Learning 
those facts, they gradually established an industry upon 
the islands, removed a considerable number of the 
population of one or more of the Aleutian Islands, and 
kept them permanently there for the purpose of guard- 
ing the seals upon the islands and taking, at the suita- 
ble time for that purpose, such a number of super- 
fluous males as the knowledge they had acquired 
taught them could be safely taken. 

Finally the system which they established grew step 
by step more regular and precise; and sometime in 
the neighborhood of 1845 tney na cl adopted a regular 
system which absolutely forbade the slaughter of fe- 
males and confined the taking to young males under 
certain ages and to a certain annual number. Under 
that reasonable system, conforming to natural laws, 
the existence of the herd was perpetuated and its num- 
bers even largely increased; so that at a time when it 
passed into the possession of the United States, it was 
true that the numbers of the herd were then equal to, if 
not greater, than ever had been known since the 
islands were first discovered. A similar system had 
been pursued by the Russians with similar effect upon 
the Commander Islands, possessions of their own on 
the western side of the Bering Sea. 

That was the condition of things when these islands 
passed into the possession of the United States under 
the treaty between that government and Russia, in 
1867. At first, upon the acquisition by the United 
States government, its authority was not immediately 
established, and consequently this herd of seals was 
exposed to the indiscriminate ravages of individuals 
who might be tempted hither by their hope of gain- 



l8o THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

ing a profit; and the result was that in the first year 
something like 240,000 seals were taken, and although 
some discrimination was attempted, and an effort was 
made to confine the taking, as far as possible, to males 
only, yet those efforts were not in every respect suc- 
cessful. That great draft thus irregularly and indis- 
criminately made upon them had undoubtedly a very 
unfavorable effect; but the following year the United 
States succeeded in establishing its authority and at 
once readopted the system which had been up to that 
time pursued by Russia, and which had been followed 
by such advantageous results. 

In addition to that, and for the purpose of further 
insuring the preservation of the herd, the United States 
Government resorted to national legislation. Laws 
were .passed, the first of them as early as the year 1870, 
designed to protect the seal and other fur-bearing 
animals in Bering Sea and the other possessions re- 
cently acquired from Russia. At a later period, this 
statute, with others that had been subsequently passed, 
was revised in the year 1873, when a general revision 
of the statutes of the United States was made. They 
were revised and made more stringent. It was made 
a criminal offense to kill any female seal; and the tak- 
ing of any seals at all, except in pursuance of the au- 
thority of the United States and under such regula- 
tions as it might adopt, was made a criminal offense. 
Any vessel engaged in the taking of female seals in 
the waters of Alaska, according to the phrase used in 
the statute, was made liable to seizure and confisca- 
tion ; and in this way it was hoped and expected that 
the fur seals would be preserved in the future as com- 
pletely as they had been in the past, and that this herd 
would continue to be still as productive as before, and 
if possible made more productive. That system thus 
initiated by the United States in the year 1870 pro- 
duced the same result as had followed the regulations 
established by Russia. The United States Govern- 
ment was enabled even to take a larger draft than 



THE FUR-SEAL CONTROVERSY. l8l 

Russia had, prior to that time, made upon the herd. 
Russia had limited herself at an early period to the 
taking of somewhere between 30,000 and 40,000 seals 
annually, not solely, perhaps, for the reason that no 
more could be safely taken from the herd, but also for 
the reason that at that time the demand for seals was 
not so great as to justify the putting of a larger num- 
ber of skins upon the market. 

At a later period of the occupation by Russia, her 
drafts were increased. At the time when the occupa- 
tion was transferred to the United States they amount- 
ed to somewhere between 50,000 and 70,000 annually. 
The United States took 100,000 from the beginning, 
and continued to make those annual drafts of 100,000 
down to the year 1890. That is a period of something 
like nineteen years. The taking of this number of 
100,000 did not at first appear to lead to any diminu- 
tion in the numbers of the herd; and it was only in 
the year 1890, or a few years prior to that time, that a 
diminution in the numbers of the herd was first ob- 
served. 

Such was the industry established by the United 
States. It was a very beneficial industry, beneficial, 
in the first instance, to herself. She had adopted the 
practice of leasing these islands upon long terms, 
twenty years, to a private corporation; and those 
leases contained an obligation to pay a large annual 
sum in the shape of a revenue tax and a gross sum of 
some $60,000 as rent. In addition to that, the lessees 
were required by the terms of the lease to pay to the 
United States Government a certain sum upon every 
seal captured by them, which, of course, resulted in 
the enjoyment by the United States of a still larger 
revenue. It was beneficial to the lessees, for it is to 
be supposed, and such is the fact, that they were en- 
abled to make a profit, notwithstanding the large 
sums they were compelled to pay to the United States 
Government upon the seal skins secured by them. The 
whole product of the herd was contributed at once to 



182 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

commerce, and through the instrumentality of com- 
merce was carried all over the world to those who 
desired the sealskins, and those who desired sealskins, 
wherever they might be on the face of the globe, and 
whatever nation they might inhabit, got them upon 
the same terms upon which the citizens of the United 
States enjoyed them. This contribution of the annual 
product to the purposes of commerce, to be dealt with 
as commerce deals with one of its subjects, of course 
amounted substantially to a putting it up at auction, 
and it was awarded to the highest bidder, wherever he 
might dwell. 

The effect of this was, also, to build up and maintain 
an important industry in Great Britain. It was there 
that the sealskins were manufactured and prepared for 
sale in the market, and thousands of people were en- 
gaged in that industry, many more, indeed, than were 
engaged in the industry of gathering the seals upon 
the Pribilof Islands. That particular benefit was se- 
cured to Great Britain in consequence of this industry. 

In the few years preceding 1890, the government of 
the United States w T as made aware of a peril to the 
industry which had thus been established and which 
it was in the enjoyment of, a peril to the preservation 
of this race of seals, a peril not proceeding from what 
may be called natural causes, such as the killing by 
whales and other animals which prey upon the seals 
in the water, but a peril proceeding from the hand of 
man. It was found that the practice of pelagic sealing, 
which had for many years, and, indeed, from the 
earliest knowledge of these regions, been carried on 
to a very limited extent by the Indians who inhabited 
the coasts, for the purpose of obtaining food for them- 
selves and skins for their clothing, and which had 
made a limited draft upon the herds in that way — it 
was found that this practice was beginning to be ex- 
tended so as to be carried on by whites, and in large 
vessels capable of proceeding long distances from the 
shore, of encountering the roughest weather, and of 



THE FUR-SEAL CONTROVERSY. 183 

carrying boats and boatmen and hunters, armed with 
every appliance for taking and slaughtering the seals 
upon their passage through the seas. That practice 
began in the year 1876, but at first its extent was small. 
The vessels were fitted out mostly from a port in 
British Columbia, and confined their enterprise to the 
North Pacific Ocean, not entering Bering Sea at all; 
and their drafts upon the seals even in the North 
Pacific Ocean were at first extremely small, only a 
few thousands each year. But the business was found 
to be a profitable one, and, of course, as its profit was 
perceived, more and more were tempted to engage in 
it, and a larger and larger investment of capital was 
made in it. More and more vessels prosecuted the 
fishery in the North Pacific Ocean, and in 1883, for 
the first time, a vessel ventured to enter Bering Sea. 

Up to this time, during the whole of the Russian 
and the whole of the American occupation of these 
islands, there had been no such thing as pelagic seal- 
ing, except in the insignificant way already mentioned 
by the Indians. Those two nations had enjoyed the 
full benefit of this property, the full benefit of these 
herds of seals, in as complete a degree as if they had 
been organized as the sole proprietors of them, and 
as if a title in them, not only while they were ashore and 
upon the breeding islands, but while they were absent 
upon their migrations, had been recognized in them 
during that whole period, or as if there had been some 
regulation among the nations absolutely prohibiting 
all pelagic sealing. Up to the period when pelagic 
sealing began to be extended, those advantages were 
exclusively enjoyed by Russia and the United States; 
and at first, this pelagic sealing did not extend into 
Bering Sea, but was carried on in the North Pacific 
Ocean and south and east of the Aleutian chain. 

Why Bering Sea was thus carefully abstained from 
it may, perhaps, be difficult to say. It may be for the 
reason that it was farther off, more difficult to reach. 
It may be for the reason that the pelagic sealers did not 



1 84 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

at first suppose that they had a right to enter Bering 
Sea and take the seals there, for it was well known 
that during the whole of the Russian occupation Rus- 
sia did assert for herself an exclusive right to all the 
products of that region of the globe; and it was also, 
of course, well known to all governments, and to these 
pelagic sealers, that the United States had, when they 
acceded to the sovereignty over these islands, asserted 
a similar right, and made the practice of pelagic seal- 
ing, in Bering Sea at least — perhaps farther, but in 
Bering Sea, at least — a criminal offense under their 
law. But from whatever cause, it was not until the 
year 1883 that any pelagic sealers ventured into Bering 
Sea. During that year a single vessel did enter there, 
took a large catch, was very successful and was not 
called to any account; and this successful experiment 
was, of course, followed during the succeeding years 
by many repetitions of the same enterprise. 

The extent to which pelagic sealing was thus carried 
on in Bering Sea, its probable consequences upon the 
herds which made their homes upon the Pribilof 
Islands, was not at first appreciated either by the 
United States or by the lessees of the islands. There 
was no means by which they could easily find out how 
many vessels made such excursions, and they did not 
at first seem to suppose that their interests were par- 
ticularly threatened by it. Consequently, for the first 
two or three years, no notice seems to have been taken 
of these enterprises by the government of the United 
States, although it had laws made against them. But 
in 1886, this practice of taking seals at sea became so 
largely extended that it excited apprehensions for the 
safety of the herd, and it was perhaps thought at that 
time that there was already observable in the condition 
of the herd some damaging, destructive consequence 
of that pursuit of them by sea. 

The attention of the United States having been 
called to the practice, that government determined to 
prevent it, and the first method to which it resorted 



THE FUR-SEAL CONTROVERSY. 185 

was an enforcement of the laws upon her statute book 
which prohibited the practice, and subjected all vessels 
engaged in it to seizure and confiscation. Instructions 
were accordingly given to the cruisers of the United 
States to suppress the practice and to enforce its laws. 
The result was that in the year 1886, three British 
vessels and some American vessels were taken while 
engaged in the pursuit illegally under the laws of the 
United States. They were carried in and condemned. 

These seizures, after much diplomatic correspond- 
ence, led to the final adoption of a treaty between the 
United States and Great Britain, which was signed at 
Washington, February 29, 1892. 

The arbitrators under this treaty, Hon. John M. Har- 
lan and Hon. John T. Morgan, representing the United 
States; Baron Alphonse de Courcel, arbitrator named 
by France; the Right Hon. Lord Hannen and Sir John 
Thompson, representing Great Britain; Marquis E. 
Visconti Venosta, arbitrator named by Italy, and Mr. 
Gregers Gram, arbitrator named by Sweden and Nor- 
way, met at Paris on February 23, 1893, and were in 
session until August 15, 1893. The public is familiar 
with the terms of their award, which were not only 
satisfactory to this country, but practically a final set- 
tlement of the controversy. 

Since 1893, efforts have been made by the United 
States for the further prevention of pelagic sealing and 
the protection of the fur-seal fisheries. With this end 
in view, Hon. John W. Foster was sent as agent to 
England to secure the adoption of a modus vivendi 
prohibiting all sealing until a final disposition of the 
question can be had and a treaty can be entered into 
establishing further regulations for the government of 
the fisheries. At this writing no official data of the 
results of this mission can be had, the agent not having 
as yet submitted his report. 

As a further result of the arbitration of 1893, a con- 
vention was concluded between the United States and 
Great Britain, February 8, 1896, for the settlement of 

13 



1 86 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the claims of British subjects growing out of the seiz- 
ures of British vessels in Bering Sea from 1886 to 1892, 
which provided for the appointment of two commis- 
sioners, and, if necessary, an umpire. This commis- 
sion was to sit at Victoria, British Columbia, and San 
Francisco, Cal. Sessions have been held in both 
places, but as yet the results of their labors have not 
been made public. 



SALMON, WHALE, COD, HERRING. 187 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

SALMON, WHALE, COD AND HERRING. 

Extent of the Alaskan fisheries — Statistics of the salmon 
catch — Product of oil, bone and ivory— Cod and herring 
fisheries. 

The products of the sea, the lakes and the rivers are 
the chief resources of Alaska. The native populations 
have always obtained much of their food supply from 
the waters, and in a less degree their clothing and 
many of the conveniences of life. Their winter supply 
of food is still largely made up of dried fish, seaweed, 
and fish eggs, while fresh fish are eaten at all seasons 
of the year, not only by the natives, but by all classes 
of people, and the abundance of this product insures 
the most thriftless of a ready means of subsistence. 

^Salmon fishing is by far the largest and most im- 
portant industry. Thirty-seven canneries and seven or 
more salting establishments were reported as in oper- 
ation in 1890. The aggregate pack of the canneries 
was 688,332 cases of four dozen one-pound cans, falling 
a little short of the pack in 1889. The amount of 
salted salmon was about 7,300 barrels, a little more 
than the year previous. The salmon fisheries repre- 
sent a capital of about $4,250,000, and they give em- 
ployment to about 2,000 white laborers, 2,500 China- 
men, and 1,000 natives, and require in their business 
for transportation, and in their work, about 100 steam 
vessels and 500 fishing boats. The white and Chinese 
laborers do not usually remain in the territory after 
the season is over. 

The report for 1895 of Mr. Joseph Murray, special 
agent to inspect the fisheries of Alaska, says that 

* Joseph P. Smith, Director Bureau American Republics. 



l88 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

during the year nearly 7,000,000 cases, of 48 pounds 
to the case, were packed, and the total value of the 
salmon canned was over $2,000,000. 

"The whaling business," says Mr. Lyman E. Knapp, 
governor of Alaska, in his report for 1892, "in which 
forty-eight vessels are engaged, resulted in a catch for 
1 89 1 of 12,228 barrels of oil, 186,250 pounds of bone, 
and 1,000 pounds of ivory. The total value was 
$1,218,293. Below is a comparative statement of the 
amount of oil, bone and ivory taken during the last 
eighteen years: 

Year. Oil. Bone. Ivory. 

Barrels. Pounds. Pounds. 

1891 12,228 186,250 1,000 

1890 14,890 231,232 4,150 

1889 12,834 231,981 1,506 

1888 15,774 303,587 i,55o 

1887 31,714 564,802 875 

1886 37,26o 304,530 2,850 

1885 24,844 451,038 6,564 

1884 20,373 295,700 5,421 

1883 12,300 160,200 23,100 

1882 21,100 316,600 17,800 

1881 21,800 354,500 15,400 

1880 23,200 339,000 15,300 

1879 I7>400 127,000 32,900 

1878 9,000 73,300 30,000 

1877 13,900 i39,6oo 74,000 

1876 2,800 8,800 7,000 

1875 16,300 157,000 25,400 

1874 10,000 86,000 7,000 

Total, 18 years 318,917 4,93^,950 272,410 

The codfish business is next in importance in Alaska. 
It is carried on at the Shumagin Islands and in the 
Bering Sea. The catch of 1890 amounted to a total 
of 1,138,000 fish. Since the beginning of the codfish- 



SALMON, WHALE, COD, HERRING. 189 

ing industry in this territory in 1865 the total number 
of fish taken is 25,723,300, of the value of $12,861,650. 
The first four years, the business did not come near to 
its present proportions. 

A hasty survey has given an idea of the extent of 
the banks, and there is much yet to be done to proper]} 
define their limits and determine their character. Port- 
lock Bank, extending northeasterly from Kadiak, has 
an immense area; Shumagin Bank, south of the Shu- 
magin group of islands, has an area of about 4,400 
square miles; Albatross Bank, off the southeastern 
side of Kadiak, has an area of 2,900 square miles; Slime 
Bank, north of Unimak Island, in Bering Sea, covers 
an area of 1,445 square miles, embracing depths of 
twenty to fifty fathoms; Baird Bank stretches along 
the north coast of Alaska Peninsula 230 miles, with 
an average width of forty miles, covering an area of 
9,200 square miles. The depths range from fifteen to 
fifty fathoms, with a bottom of fine gray sand. 

The business of the Alaska Oil and Guano Company, 
at Killisnoo, gives employment to forty-five white 
men, fifty Indians, and a few Chinamen. Their princi- 
pal business is fishing, and the manufacture of oil and 
fish fertilizer, though they also have a trading post. 
Their capital stock is $75,000. They have a fishing 
fleet of three steamers, four scows and two small boats. 
The product of their factory in 1891 was larger than 
in 1890, being 300,000 gallons of oil instead of 157,000 
reported the previous year. They also put up 700 
barrels of salt salmon, and manufactured 800 tons of 
guano. The value of the product was not less than 
$114,000. The oil is worth about thirty cents per gal- 
lon and the guano about $30 per ton. 

The fish used for the manufacture of oil is the her- 
ring, which is very abundant, very rich in oil, and 
finely flavored. It is much used as a food-fish, and 
also as bait in taking halibut and other large fish. It 
is caught by the natives for their own use with a stick, 
toward the end of which are inserted several sharpened 



190 THE GOLDEN NORTH, 

spikes. They dip the stick in the water, catch one or 
more herring, and with a single motion land the fish 
in the canoe, and then thrust the stick into the water 
again. In this way they take immense quantities in a 
short time. These fish frequent the still waters of bays 
and inlets by the 'million, at different places, and in 
varying seasons of the year, from August to February. 
Halibut abounds throughout central, southern, and 
western Alaska, and can be taken at any time during 
the year. They vary in size from 15 to 250 pounds 
each, those weighing from fifty to seventy-five pounds 
being preferred. It is not uncommon, says Governor 
Knapp, of Alaska, for Sitka Indians to visit Silver Bay 
or the vicinity of Mount Edgecombe and return the 
following day with nearly a ton of these fish. White- 
fish, losh, and graylings are found in large quantities 
in the Yukon, and afford more food for the natives 
than the salmon. Black bass are abundant in south- 
eastern Alaska, and trout and pike inhabit almost all 
the rivers. 



COMMERCE, GOVERNMENT, ETC. 191 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
COMMERCE, GOVERNMENT, TRANSPORTATION. 

Transportation facilities — Exports and imports— Territorial 
government — The civil list of Alaska. 

Correct statistics as to the trade of Alaska are not 
easily obtained, and this is largely due to the various 
and uncertain transportation facilities. *The large 
companies engaged in business in the territory usually 
employ their own ships. There were some eighty- 
seven trading houses reported in Alaska in 1891, lo- 
cated in not less than sixty towns and villages, and 
scattered from Point Barrow to the southern extrem- 
ity, and from Loring to Attu. The number of stores for 
the sale of general merchandise in southeastern Alaska 
in 1892 was forty-seven. The imports consist of mer- 
chandise, machinery, powder, clothing, provisions, 
tools, furniture, etc. The .exports are made up of fish, 
furs, whalebone, ivory, oils, gold and silver bullion 
and ores.' The total imports in 1892, according to the 
report of Governor Knapp, of Alaska, amounted to 
the value of $2,164,238. 

Exports. 

Furs, curios, etc. from 13 stations, south- 
east Alaska $ 351,000 

1,220,000 codfish (7,500 tons) 375,000 

789,294 cases of salmon 3,157,176 

9,000 barrels of salted salmon 81,000 

186,250 pounds of whalebone 1,210,625 

1,000 pounds ivory 5,000 

12,228 barrels whale oil 103,668 

* Joseph P. Smith, Director Bureau American Republics. 



192 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

Product of the Killisnoo manufactory, oil 

and guano 1 14,000 

Gold bullion, Alaska Treadwell Gold Min- 
ing Company 707,017 

Gold and silver ore and bullion by other 

companies - 400,000 

13,500 seal skins taken under the lease; 
52,087 seal skins taken by sealing fleet; 
10,000 seal skins taken by natives and 
others 755>5&7 

Furs shipped by Alaska Commercial 

Company 348,991 

Furs shipped by other parties, western 
Alaska 90,000 

Other products not enumerated 60,000 

Total $7759,064 

Balance of exports above imports $5,594,886 

Among the furs may be mentioned those of the sea 
otter, the seal, the beaver, the silver and blue fox, the 
mink, and the marten. 

Governor Knapp, in his report for 1892, says: "The 
mail contract with the Pacihc Coast Steamship Com- 
pany requires stoppage for receipt and delivery of mail 
by their regular passenger and freight steamers, two 
each month, at seven ports, viz: Kichkan, in Tongass 
Narrows, Loring, Wrangel, Douglas, Juneau, Killis- 
noo and Sitka. For this service they are paid the sum 
of $18,000 per year. When other trips are made and 
other places are visited by the steamers of the com- 
pany, mails are carried and delivered wherever they 
call. By this more uncertain service, several mails 
have been delivered at Metlakahtla, Mary Island, Chil- 
cat and Hoonah, and the mail has been carried weekly 
instead of semi-monthly to the first named places dur- 
ing the months of June, July and August. Another 
mail contract insures monthly mail service from 
Wrangel to Klawak and Howkan. A small steamer, 



COMMERCE, GOVERNMENT, ETC. 193 

or steam launch, plies between Wrangel and Howkan. 
Between Sitka and Unalaska, a distance of about 1,350 
miles, a small steamer has made seven regular monthly 
trips, from April to October, stopping at six places. 

In Special Consular Reports on "Highways of Com- 
merce, 1895," it is stated that the fare from San Fran- 
cisco to Wrangel, by the Pacific Coast Steamship Com- 
pany, is $50; to Juneau or Sitka, $70. There is also 
steamship service from St. Michael's via Unalaska to 
Seattle and San Francisco. 

The report of the Second Assistant Postmaster-Gen- 
eral of the United States for 1896 says that a post- 
office was authorized at Circle City March 19, 1896. 
The carrier for the first trip started from Juneau June 
nth, and reached Circle City July 14th, carrying 1,474 
letters. He returned by way of St. Michael, reaching 
Seattle August 19th. On the second trip, the carrier 
left Juneau July 8th, reaching Circle City August 6th. 
Another trip was made in September, and four be- 
tween November and May, 1897. 

In 1886, in reply to an inquiry on the part of the 
United States Senate, the director of the United States 
Geological Survey, J. W. Powell, presented a report 
on the feasibility of constructing a railroad between 
the United States, Asiatic Russia, and Japan. Mr. 
Powell said that from all available information the pro- 
posed line appeared to present no greater obstacles 
than those already overcome in transcontinental rail- 
road building. It was suggested that the line start 
from some point on the Northern Pacific Railroad in 
Montana, and run, via the head waters of the Peace 
River, to the head waters of the Yukon; and thence 
to some point on the shore of Bering Sea, the total 
distance covered being about 2,765 miles. A branch 
line of 375 miles from the head waters of the Peace 
River might run to the mouth of the Stikine River, 
so as to facilitate communication with Sitka. 

There is not much of special interest in the gov- 
ernment of Alaska. In 1884 a district government was 



194 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

created, with a governor and district court, which sits 
alternately at Sitka and Wrangel. The laws are prin- 
cipally those of Oregon. There is a land office at Sitka. 
Commissioner Hermann, of the United States General 
Land Office, on July 31, 1897, stated that the mineral- 
land laws of the United States, the town-site laws (pro- 
viding for the incorporation of town sites and acquire- 
ment of title thereto from the government to the 
trustee), and the law giving each qualified person 160 
acres of land in a square and compact form, are ap- 
plicable to Alaska. The coal-land regulations and the 
public-land laws do not extend to Alaska, as the ter- 
ritory is expressly excluded by the laws themselves 
from their operation. 

The following is a list of United States officers in 
Alaska, furnished by the Department of the Interior, 
August 7, 1897: 

John G. Brady, governor, Sitka. 

Albert D. Elliot, clerk of the court, and ex-officio 
secretary of Alaska, Sitka. 

William L. Distin, surveyor-general, Sitka. 

John W. Dudley, register of the land office, Sitka. 

Russell Shelly, receiver of public moneys, Sitka. 

Caldwell W. Tuttle, commissioner at Sitka. 

Kenneth M. Jackson, commissioner at Wrangel. 

Lycurgus R. Woodward, commissioner at Unalaska. 

John Y. Ostrander, commissioner at Juneau City. 

Phillip Gallaher, commissioner at Kadiak. 

John E. Crane, commissioner at Circle City. 

L. P. Shepard, commissioner at St. Michaels. 

John U. Smith, commissioner at Dyea. 

Charles H. Isham, commissioner at Unga. 

The following is a list of the judicial officers of the 
United States in Alaska, furnished by the Department 
of Justice, August 7, 1897: 

Charles S. Johnson, district judge, Sitka. 

Burton E. Bennett, United States attorney, Sitka. 

Alfred J. Daly, assistant United States attorney, 
Sitka. 

James M. Shoup, United States marshal, Sitka. 



RESOURCES OF HUDSON'S BAY. 195 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

RESOURCES OP HUDSON'S BAY. 

Mountains of pure mica—The salmon fisheries of Ungava — 
The Eskimos and their language— Extracts from prayer 
and hymn books— On to Churchill. 

The reader is invited to accompany the writer on a 
voyage from the Atlantic Coast through Hudson Strait 
and Bay, in order to study the natural features, re- 
sources and native populations of that wonderful re- 
gion. These observations are based on the travels of 
the author during 1884, in his capacity as meteorologi- 
cal observer of the Canadian government expedition 
sent out to enquire into the practicability of the navi- 
gation of those waters in connection with a proposed 
transcontinental railway line from Churchill to Port 
Simpson through the Pine River Pass. The journey 
covering the country between the two points named 
had been previously made. 

Our good steamship Neptune is "laying to" off 
Resolution Island, waiting for the fog to lift, so that 
her weatherbeaten commander, Commodore Sopp, of 
the Liverpool Job Brothers fleet, can see his way to 
round Cape Chidley and enter Hudson's strait. 

We have passed through Belle Isle, and made the 
acquaintance of a score or more of mighty icebergs 
which are going down from the Arctic rock mountains 
to be dissolved in tropical seas. We have traversed 
700 miles of rugged Labrador coast, paid a visit to 
Nain, the capital of the Moravian mission stations, 
called at Nachvak, the first of the Hudson's Bay trading 
posts, and are now ready to make the voyage through 
the strait and across the bay to Churchill harbor, 
which lies in the shadow of the big stone fortress 
abandoned by Hearne about 1782. 



I96 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

At Nain we were introduced to a village of 500 civi- 
lized and educated Eskimos. They live in neatly built 
thatched roof log houses. Nearly a century and a half 
ago, when these Moravian missions and trading sta- 
tions were established, there was but little vegetation 
and no timber in the neighborhood, but both have 
come to them since. Now they "switch" down from 
the hillsides, by means of husky dogs, logs ten to 

twelve inches in di- 
ll o o a ameter and from 
v A p, < ., fifteen to twenty 

feet long. It was 
P V A > < < there that we got 

* ,, ~ % m \ our first lesson on 

the phenomenon of 

k 9 p d 6 » the march of soil, 

oh n r j L u vegetation and tim- 

r J l * ber to the north, 

xn *\ r j l «■ and we were able 

to enlarge on this 
n * a «• a * at Nachvak. 

a «i / «• t> $ At Nain we 

. learned the rudi- 

109 «• f % m ments of the Eski- 

y rfj a v ^ mo language, and 

now all we need is 
r v A > < * practice to make 

x v ^ ? ^ * ourselves perfect in 

■8KIM0 BTttABABnm. its oral and written 

use. These natives 
have the old and new testaments and numbers 1 and 
2 of Sankey's Hymns, translated and printed in their 
own language. They have a church, and in it a 
harpischord, after the pattern of our old-style me- 
lodeon, which was brought from Germany nearly a 
century ago, but is yet in fair condition. They are fond 
of music and have a trained violin orchestra. 

Do you ask why these people are not taught a lan- 
guage other than their own? That has been found an 



RESOURCES OF HUDSON'S BAY. 197 

impossible thing to do. They consider the attempt to 
speak another language "the unpardonable sin." But 
we can only speak of these strange people as a memory 
now. Here is a leaf from one of their hymn books 
containing a portion of the familiar hymns, "Knock- 
ing, knocking," and "Safe in the arms of Jesus." 

But we must hurry forward. The fog has lifted and 
our good ship has rounded the cape, entered Hudson's 
Strait, and paid a visit to Ungava Bay. Here we in- 
spected a mountain of pure mica, from the summit of 
which were torn with our own hands sheets large 
enough to carpet an ordinary parlor. It is the purest 
of mica, faultlessly transparent, and abounds in quanti- 
ties sufficient to supply the mica demands of the world. 

In Ungava we met the refrigerator steamership 
Diana on her way 
from Ungava River ^•■ BkA ^ _, 
to England with ««* *-f « «* odllfrc- «- 
a full load of &°* *<•*" AWW Le*Ci>e-<joaJV*.3 
salmon, taken in Pc«T ><^r K>K<C\*a*> JoVAPfW'. 
one tide, by means Au>V4<» A/LPV^P' •/".» ^<d e 
of a trap. This in- ix<n*o« <W<>c-r* Art-P^o-WIP*. 
cident and the ^^^yt Afw A^ndc- A- 
mountain of mica, r . M ... . ' A «~ - ~ 

constitute the two "■**** aH >^ ****• <0 ^ 
first hints on the re- **•» *Pb^ AVWO* «r*. 
sourcesofthe ™ 'o^'* 8 raATsa^-ESKmo 

north. 

But we must be away. Not, however, until we have 
paid a short visit to the Eskimos on the south shore 
of Hudson's Strait. Here the natives have not been dis- 
turbed by civilization, and they do not meet with even 
Hudson's Bay traders oftener than once in three to five 
years. They are a greasy, dirty, happy-go-lucky set, 
living for the most part on the blubber of the seal, and 
on wild fowl, which abounds in great plenty, cooking 
all their food thoroughly, except the fat of the seal, 
thus giving contradiction to much that has been falsely 
written about them in this respect. Seal oil, with lichen 



198 



THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



moss for a wick, supplies their stone lamps, and they 
are seldom short of this fuel. 

There is no soil on either side of Hudson's Strait. 
The rocks are bare except as covered by patches of 
lichen moss, upon which great droves of cariboo or 

reindeer feed to 



45. A^APHo* «*v?n^ 
Ko*. 






2. 4U*, ?c*>S 
>&£.c-kcJ>* Ac. 



46. avwv* *>«*?*> 

nOt HYMN " KNOCKING, KNOCK- 
U»G," ETC.— ESKIMO. 



their 
tent, 
dwell 
skin 



heart's con- 

The natives 

in reindeer 

tents, which 



are easily moved 
from place to place. 
We enter Hud- 
son's Bay from the 
straits at the sun- 
rise of a bright, still 
morning, with the 
Diggs Islands on 
our right and the 
mighty Cape Wol- 
stenholme on our 
left. From the form- 
er, Henry Hudson 
and his son were 
set adrift in a jolly 
boat by a mutinous 
crew, never to be 
heard from more; 
and from the sum- 
mit of the latter, 
3,000 feet above the 
water, streams are 
pouring down from 
a crown of per- 
petual snow and ice. 
A few days and nights bring us to Fort Churchill; 
and now we must take time to go to the Rose Welcome 
whaling ground, to the north, and to visit York Fac- 
tory far to the south, at the mouth of the Hayes and 
Nelson rivers. 



IN HUDSON'S STRAIT. 199 

CHAPTER XXX. 

IN HUDSON'S STRAIT. 

Its length, width and islands — Height of its tides, and ve- 
locity of its tidal currents— Talks with Eskimos. 

Before going up to Rose Welcome, where we will 
enjoy the excitement of seeing a whale taken, let us 
make some observations on Hudson's Strait, through 
which we have passed. From Cape Chidley to Cape 
Best, on Resolution Island, at the entrance to the 
strait, the channel is forty-five miles wide. The nar- 
rowest channel of the strait is at its western extremity, 
where between Cape Wolstenholme and the south 
shore of Nottingham Island, the channel is not more 
than thirty-five miles wide. The tides in the strait rise 
and fall from fifteen to thirty-five feet, and the tide race 
runs at from four to ten miles an hour, at half tide, 
according to location. 

Its principal islands are Resolution on the north of 
the entrance from the mouth of Davis' Strait; Big 
Island on the north side of the strait, close to the main- 
land, called North Bluff; Charles Island, about fifteen 
miles from its south shore, and about the same distance 
northwest of Cape Weggs ; Salisbury, about forty miles 
from the north-main coast, with Mills Island twelve 
miles to the northwest of it, both at the mouth of Fox 
Channel; and Nottingham, near the center of the 
strait at the entrance to Hudson's Bay. 

The smaller or group islands are the Buttons, about 
five miles north of Cape Chidley; Lower Savages, 
northwest of Resolution, and between it and the north- 
main shore; the Middle Savages and Saddle Backs, 
lying close to the north main coast, about sixty miles 
northwest of the Lower Savages, and a little to the 
east of the Upper Savages; Big Island at the entrance 



200 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

to North Bay; and the Digges, six miles west of Cape 
Wolstenholme, at the south side of the entrance to 
Hudson's Bay. 

The water in the Strait is uniformly very deep; be- 
tween Resolution and Cape Chidley it is three hun- 
dred fathoms. The center of the Strait to the west 
will average from two hundred to one hundred and 
fifty fathoms, getting shallower as the entrance to 
Hudson's Bay is neared. There are no shoals or dan- 
gerous reefs to render navigation precarious. The 
same may practically be said in regard to fogs and 
gales; fogs occur, but are usually of short duration, 
and heavy gales are of rare occurrence. In this respect 
the Strait is in happy contrast with the ever-squally 
waters of the Labrador Coast. The variation or error 
of the magnetic needle, in its application to the navi- 
gation of Hudson's Strait, is as regular and reliable as 
in any part of the world. It is about 50 degrees west 
at Cape Chidley, and at the entrance of Hudson's Bay, 
say at Nottingham Island, about 55 w. There is no 
local magnetic force to interfere with navigating the 
center of the Strait, and the compass, that is, the patent 
Sir William Thompson compass, may be depended 
upon; but the ordinary marine compass is practically 
worthless. This arises from the close proximity of the 
Strait to the magnetic pole, on account of which the 
directive force acting on the needle is greatly dimin- 
ished. 

The shores of the Strait are high, bold and barren, 
consisting of the Laurentian gneiss formation. The 
waters abound in whales, porpoise, walrus, seal, and 
many kinds of fish, while on the shores and the borders 
of the lakes and streams of the interior, fur-bearing ani- 
mals, deer, white bears and a great variety of small 
game, are plentiful. The Eskimos inhabit both the 
north and south shores, and the borders of the rivers. 

A visit to some of the Eskimo camps on the north 
shore of Hudson's Strait proved interesting. There we 
obtained some rare skins and talked to the 



IN HUDSON'S STRAIT. 201 

natives, to a limited extent, in their own language. 
The author had, by that time, gained a slight knowl- 
edge of Eskimo. The following is from the author's 
book "North Land," printed some years ago: 

"I had in my hands a Snyder rifle, which attracted 
the admiration of a young hunter. I allowed him to 
examine it, and remarked, 'oonla-ko-olik,' which 
means, Tt is a rifle.' He was greatly pleased with the 
idea that I could speak his tongue, and went into a 
rigmarole of gibberish, of which I understood noth- 
ing, and to which I responded: 'Ontuke/ which is, 
T do not understand.' Then his countenance dropped, 
but to revive him I said: 'Ki-chin-a-coma,' which is, 
T will give you tobacco.' His smiles returned, and 
extending one hand he waited anxiously, for all Es- 
kimos love tobacco. Exhibiting the tobacco, I asked, 
'kito-ma-shima-yuk?' This demand for deer skin 
brought another cloud to his face, but after a moment's 
pause he shouted out, 'ko-le-tuk,' meaning a woman's 
dress of deer skin. He exhibited two of these, made of 
beautifully dressed skins, with shoulder hoods for 
papoose, and the inevitable long tails, the only dis- 
tinguishing mark between the dress of the men and 
that of the women. He laid them on the ground, and 
I placed four plugs of black tobacco near by and asked, 
'(Donah, oomung de?' or 'will you take this for that?' 
He nodded assent and the trade was over, but not un- 
til his explanation of 'Match-a-mic,' had softened me 
to the extent of one card of matches. 

"I then asked for 'poyea/ or seal skin. He brought 
from his bag of the same material four large skins, and 
the same performance was repeated. I obtained them 
for four mean little black plugs of tobacco, and felt that 
the native had been badly swindled; while, on the other 
hand, he seemed to think he had struck a bonanza, and 
grinned all over his great broad ugly face. 

"With a disposition to continue the traffic, I in- 
quired for 'Nannuk,' or white bear skin. He exhibited 
a piece about eighteen inches square, and I brought 

14 



202 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

out some more tobacco, but he shook his head and 
wanted 'og-jik' (powder). I had none of this. Then 
he wanted 'in-nip-a-lowlite,' (gun caps); I had, none; 
and then he shouted 'de-vine-looka/ all of which meant 
only 'shot/ but I had none. However, he was not to 
be easily discouraged and called for a 'shi-powit,' or a 
pipe. I had only one and could not part with that, so 
I said, turning away, 'ok-shan-i,' or good-bye. This 
was a good stroke, I mean a business stroke. He came 
to time without delay and called after me : 'Pish-shee- 
yon-ma-go-lova-too-goot,' or T want to trade.' I then 
exhibited two plugs of black-strap, and asked in a 
decided tone of voice, as if it were my last offer, 
'oomungde?' He yielded and I became the happy 
owner of this small piece of valuable skin. 

"Just then a new arrival advanced, and, extending 
my hand, I said carelessly, 'kan-we-kuk' (how are 
you). He took my hand and shook it heartily, and 
spreading out his skins, said 'pish-shee-yon-ma-go- 
lova.' I turned him over to a companion who re- 
lieved him of his peltries, giving in return therefor as 
little in value as I had done for the goods obtained 
from the first." 



CAPTURING A WHALE. 203 

CHAPTER XXXI. 

CAPTURING A WHALE. 

Scenes and impressions of Marble Island — Visit to the Rose 
Welcome — The "crow's nest" and Lookout-man — Har- 
pooning a whale — An exciting contest — A "flurry." 

On our way to the Rose Welcome we stopped at 
Marble Island and were at once surprised at seeing 
so many indications of the dead at the old winter 
quarters of the New England whalers. On a high 
gravel ridge, near the harbor, there was a string of 
graves, some twenty in number, marked by large, 
well formed oak monuments. 

The scene about us was singularly impressive. In 
the stillness of the morning, we viewed the little city 
of the dead from the quarter-deck of our good ship. 
The sun, yet low in the eastern sky, bathed in golden 
brightness the vast sea over which its refreshing rays 
greeted the little island. The breeze had not yet 
awakened, and there was no voice of beast or bird, 
nor breath of life to stir the atmosphere. 

It was a place and an hour for contemplation, and 
one could not readily turn away from its opportuni- 
ties. Standing there and looking back over the his- 
tory of ancient and modern times, it seemed that, 
stretching from the land of the Norseman, and the 
waters of Archangel, to "India's coral strand," all peo- 
ples, and tribes, and tongues, from the earliest days 
of Chaldean power down to the history of Assyrian, 
Persian, Grecian, Roman, and Anglo-Saxon suprema- 
cy, have, in the progress of the arts and sciences, in 
the growth of political institutions of government and 
civil liberty, in the development of commerce and the 
advancement of industrial pursuits, and in the rise 
and glorious reign of Christianity,been. moving forward 



204 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

northwesterly. The contemplation, visionary in one 
sense, was real in another, and history was the source 
of its inspiration. The general course of human prog- 
ress, for thousands of years, has been to the north- 
west; it is still, in the flood tide of its strength, north- 
westerly. 

Mankind, in all ages, in marching along 
The highway of commerce, by mighty and strong 
Impulse of progress, invariably throng 
A course that leads north-westerly. 

The first wooden monument met with on the far 
north grave-ridge bore the following inscription: 

Sacred to the Memory 

of 

CAPTAIN WILLIAM MURPHY, 

of 

Schooner Abbie Bradford, 

who died of consumption at Marble Island, 

April 5, 1 88 1, aged 48 years. 

There were many others. The bodies occupying 
these had fallen victims to scurvy. Leaving Marble 
Island, we steam north into the whaling ground, called 
the Rose Welcome, to witness the capture of one of 
these monsters of the sea. This calls for some obser- 
vations on whales. They live entirely in the water, 
and obtain their livelihood there; hence their whole 
structure is fitted for the seas only; and when they 
are unfortunately cast upon shoals, they cannot of 
their own power re-enter the water, but perish from 
starvation. 



CAPTURING A WHALE. 205 

They are forced to rise to the surface of the water 
to breathe, which is called "spouting," because a col- 
umn of mixed vapor and water is ejected from the 
"blow-holes," rising above the surface to a height of 
more than twenty feet. The fins are simply unde- 
veloped legs, suited to aquatic locomotion; but their 
chief use seems to be to keep their immense bodies in 
position and in caring for their young, as the pro- 
pelling power is located altogether in the tail. 

The northern whale is, when fully grown, about 
seventy feet long, and in girth about thirty-five or forty 
feet. Its color is velvety-black on the upper half of its 
body, as also on its fins and tail, but its belly and the 
lower part of its jaw are nearly white. The sleek, shiny 
appearance of its body is due to the oil which is con- 
stantly emitted through the pores of the skin. The 
skin is threefold; the inner, or true skin is nothing 
more or less than the blubber, or fat. This blubber is 
generally about eighteen inches to two feet thick ac- 
cording to location on the body, and besides being of 
value as an article of commerce, it is of great use to the 
whale, offering an elastic resistance to the waves and 
pressure of the water. In a full-sized whale the blub- 
ber will weigh thirty or forty tons. 

The head of the whale is of enormous size, being 
about one-third of the entire length. The jaws are 
very long — more than fifteen feet, and about eight 
feet wide, and ten to twelve feet from top to bottom 
when open. The most peculiar part of the mouth is 
the abundance of whalebone that it contains. It lies 
in a series of plates, thick and close where it is at- 
tached to the jaw, but running into hair-like fibers at 
the ends. On each side of the jaw there are over three 
hundred of these rows with the bone usually about ten 
or twelve feet long. A good sized whale will furnish 
about one ton of bone, which is very valuable as an 
article of commerce. The whalebone is of use to the 
whale in catching its food and in separating it from 
the water. 



206 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

The whales suckle their young. When firstborn the 
young whale is without whalebone, and, therefore, its 
mouth is not equipped for supplying itself with food, 
so that it is wholly dependent upon the mother for 
subsistance. The maternal whale keeps close to her 
offspring, and does not forsake it until the whalebone 
is grown and it is able to support itself. 

Whaling is one of the most exciting vocations 
known to man. It is not attended with as many dan- 
gers as writers have generally depicted, but it neces- 
sitates many hardships, great exposure, and, of course, 
some risk of life. Steam vessels have pretty much 
superseded sailing craft in this trade, and are found, 
for many reasons, to be very much more adapted to it; 
but in Hudson's Bay the sailing vessel is still used. 
When the ship, with her crew and hunting appliances, 
has reached the whaling waters, the "crow's nest," 
which consists of a barrel, supplied with furs and com- 
fortables, without any top, and with its bottom ar- 
ranged so as to open and shut on hinges, is arranged 
on the cross-tree of the foremast. The lookout-man 
ascends the rigging, passes up into this nest, closes 
the trap after him, and, with the aid of a telescope 
keeps a vigilant outlook for whales. Meanwhile all is 
gotten ready on deck for putting off in the boats when- 
ever a monster is sighted. The lookout-man may have 
to endure many long, weary, tedious hours before his 
aching eyes are gladdened by a sight of the object of 
his watch, but as soon as he observes a whale, he care- 
fully notes its location and the direction from the 
vessel to it. Then, opening the trap, he rapidly but 
quietly descends. Not a word is spoken, but the man 
on the bridge gives the sign and a boat is made ready. 
Six oarsmen and a helmsman are at their posts. The 
lookout-man jumps into the boat, takes his place at 
the swivel harpoon gun, and at once becomes the 
harpooneer. He gives the course, and the boat with 
muffled oars puts away toward the whale, and, after 
cruising about for several hours, it may be, the giant 



CAPTURING A WHALE. 207 

comes to the surface to blow, perhaps within a hun- 
dred yards of the hunters. He generally remains 
partly out of the water five or ten minutes, so that there 
is time to get the boat into position. The swivel gun 
is turned upon him and discharged, sending into his 
side a harpoon, some two feet, to which is attached a 
line six hundred and twenty fathoms long. The har- 
poon is about eighteen inches or two feet in length. 
The stock is inserted in the muzzle of the gun, and the 
line is fastened to a ring at one side. The barbed 
point of the deadly weapon projects from the gun 
some ten or twelve inches. Fourteen fathoms of the 
line are left loose, in a proper coil, so that the harpoon 
will be impeded as little as possible. If they have suc- 
ceeded in making fast to the whale, which generally 
makes off under water, the line is payed out with the 
friction of two turns round the "bullet head/' and a 
small flag, called the "boat's jack," is sent up as a signal 
indicating the situation of the ship. 

Meanwhile the captain has taken up his position in 
the "crow's nest," and as soon as the signal is given 
he gives the word from the lookout, "a fall!" This is 
taken up by the cook or others on deck; and, for a 
minute, all are shouting "a fall!" "a fall!" and all are 
rushing for the boats. Should the men be in their 
berths, no time is allowed or needed for dressing. They 
sleep with their clothes on, and with such extra gar- 
ments as they may require in a small bag attached to 
their persons by a rope, so that when the word is given 
they require only to jump for the boats. Each man 
knows his station in one of the six boats sent out on 
"a fall!" The helmsmen, the oarsmen, the lancers, 
and the harpooners, are each and all at their posts, 
while with muffled oars they speed away toward the 
struggling whalers in the first boat sent out, leaving 
on ship-board only the captain, the cook, and one or 
two sailors. 

The great object of these assisting boats is to get as 
near the whale as possible when he comes to the sur- 



208 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

face, and to discharge the contents of their harpoon 
guns into his sides, so as to secure him by additional 
lines. A premium is placed upon this work to the ex- 
tent of one dollar a man for each harpoon inserted. 
The assisting boats are equipped with swivel guns, 
the same as the first boat sent out. When the whale 
has been secured by four or five harpoons, and when 
he has "flurried," and not until then, the lancers ap- 
proach him. The whale "flurries" soon after being 
harpooned, or by the time he has been fastened by two 
or three lines. 

It is hard to describe a "flurry," but it is a flurry with 
a vengeance. The whale becomes alarmed, excited, 
and loses his head, and in this condition he blows 
and tears around in indescribable fury, lashing the 
water with his tail, and rendering approach to him ex- 
ceedingly dangerous. All keep their distance during 
the "flurry;" but this exhibition of power is generally 
succeeded by a calm, in which the victim is said to be 
getting sick. He comes often to the surface, and re- 
mains partly out of the water for several minutes each 
time. The boats approach closer and closer, near the 
forward fin, so as to avoid his tail, and with hand- 
lances, lances on poles about ten feet long, pierce his 
sides. Sometimes he is fired into with "exploding 
bomb lances," which, after piercing his flesh some two 
feet, explode inside, making great havoc of his vital 
parts. 

Under this treatment he soon begins to blow blood, 
which is a most wonderful spectacle. But there is no 
mercy for the whale. He is lanced and pierced and 
butchered until he turns himself over, in a sort of death 
act, and yields himself up to his captors. The men 
with knives make holes through his tail and lower lip, 
and fasten lines thereto, when another signal is given 
for the approach of the ship, which presses hurriedly 
towards them. No matter how long and arduously 
the men have worked, or how cold and exhausted they 
have become, they are all jolly now, and, holding on 



f 



CAPTURING A WHALE. 200. 

to their prize, they while away the minutes until the 
vessel arrives, by singing some of their favorite songs. 

On the approach of the vessel, the whale is made 
fast to her side, tail forward, so that the large open 
mouth will not fill with water in case of the advance 
of the ship, and the work of sculping is begun. This is 
done under the superintendence of an official called 
" the Inspectioneer." Eight or ten men are lowered 
upon the body of the whale, with nails or brads in 
the soles of their boots, like creepers, in order that 
they may not slip off his round form; and with long 
knives well sharpened for the purpose, commence the 
work of removing the blubber, which is generally 
eighteen inches thick over the whole carcass. 

The whale industry is in the hands of citizens of the 
United States from New England. 



2IO THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 
DAY AT FORT CHURCHILL. 

'Rev. Mr. Lofthouse — A curious courtship by photograph and 
letter — An intended bride starts from the old country 
for Hudson's Bay to become the wife of a missionary — 
The porpoise fishery. 

It is about six hundred miles from the Rose Wel- 
come whaling ground to Fort Churchill, or old Fort 
Prince of Wales, which is at the mouth of the Churchill 
River. The fort is a magnificent structure. One cor- 
ner of it was shattered by an attempt made to blow it 
up when abandoned by Hearne in 1782; but it is 
otherwise in an excellent state of preservation, and 
will remain so, unless taken down, for centuries to 
come. It was built by the Hudson's Bay Company 
and occupied nearly half a century as payment for its 
construction. A little way up the river from the fort 
is the trading post, where Chief Factor Spencer re- 
sides in a well appointed cottage with his good wife 
and children. This cottage has been standing for near- 
ly fifty years and is still sound in every part. Besides 
the other residents at this trading post, we meet with 
the Rev. J. Lofthouse, who at once becomes a person 
of peculiar interest. He is, as the reader will have 
supposed, the missionary stationed at this post 
by the Church of England, and is a pleasant looking, 
affable young person, well qualified to get along in a 
quiet way, without occupying any more space in the 
world of thought and action than the small duties of 
his limited sphere require. He came out from his 
Yorkshire home in 1882, and has been since located 
part of the time at York. He had, only a few days be- 
fore, completed the journey from that place to Church- 
ill along the coast on foot, a distance of over 



DAY AT FORT CHURCHILL. 211 

one hundred and fifty miles, in order to meet the out- 
coming Hudson's Bay Company's ship as soon as she 
reached her first anchorage on the west shore of the 
bay. Do you ask why he could not wait for her ar- 
rival at York? For the best of all reasons. His future 
wife came out with the vessel to join him in matrimony 
and the cares of married life in his adopted home on 
the shores of Hudson's Bay. 

There is a good deal of romance connected with the 
story of the reverend gentleman's courtship. After 
becoming settled in his new northwestern charge, he 
bethought him of the necessities of his new position. 
Of course the comforts of home could not be complete 
without a wife, and neither at York nor at Churchill 
was there to be found a person suitable. In fact there 
were no unmarried ladies at these places except Cree 
ladies; and although some of these are really beauti- 
ful and fairly well educated, they are not just suited to 
the necessities of the parsonage. Under these cir- 
cumstances, the Rev. Mr. Lofthouse exchanged pho- 
tographs, through friends in the old country, with a 
young lady whom he had never seen, but of whom he 
knew something by hearsay. The courtship, the pro- 
posal, the acceptance, and the whole business had been 
completed in the narrow scope of two letters; but let 
not the reader suppose it lacked sentiment and feeling 
on that account. Far from it. On the contrary, the 
intended bride and the intended bridegroom, were 
greatly overcome by the peculiarity of the circum- 
stances. They were to meet as strangers, as lovers, 
betrothed, promised, engaged, and for the purpose of 
marriage. And they did meet, and were married. 

There is neither an Eskimo nor yet a resident In- 
dian population at Churchill. The inhabitants of the 
place number about forty. These are Chippewayan 
half-breeds, except the officers of the post and their 
families. There are, however, about two hundred na- 
tives in the neighborhood which visit the fort, off and 
on, during various seasons of the year. The Indians 



212 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

(Chippewayans) come, in the early spring, to trade, 
bringing with them the valuable skins of the otter, 
the deer and the marten, the mink, the silver-gray 
fox, etc. The Eskimos visit the fort, generally dur- 
ing the winter, laden with white bear, deer, white fox, 
wolf and other fur-bearing skins. In this way a con- 
siderable traffic is carried on, to the great profit of the 
Hudson's Bay Company and to the many hardships 
and privations of the natives, who, however, appear 
most in their true element when half naked, half 
starved, and very dirty. 

The half-breed population of Churchill, less than 
forty souls, dwell with a few exceptions, in a long low 
building owned by the company, in which they are a 
sort of tenants at will. In the best sense of the term 
they are nothing more nor less than slaves. They 
are called servants. That name, perhaps, suits their 
condition and circumstances best. There is generally 
a sort of engagement or agreement between the men 
and the company. They are engaged for periods of 
from three to five years, at stipends ranging from one 
pound to two pounds ten shillings a month, and are 
always paid in merchandise at Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany's prices, prices that are never complained of, 
because there is not the slightest advantage in com- 
plaining, but which are large enough to make up for 
the infrequency of purchases. They live and die in 
the service of the company, enjoy but few privileges, 
few comforts, and have no opportunities of learning 
anything about the world in which they live. 

From the large number of children among them, 
and their very healthy condition, it is plainly to be 
seen that they are on the increase. They are provided 
with all the absolute necessities of life in full supply. 
They are seldom in want of food, except occasionally 
when the supplies at the post run short, as the coun- 
try is full of deer, wild geese in their season, and small 
game ; and as the company's agents treat them honor- 
ably, their condition is one of comparative comfort. 



DAY AT FORT CHURCHILL. 21 > 

In conversation and manners they are very simple, 
plain, dull and quiet people; and, in speaking with 
them, one is impressed with their dense ignorance of 
all things. Their knowledge of mechanics is confined 
to fire-arms and sailing craft. 

Walrus hunting is an important industry at 
Churchill. Early every spring two large boats are sent 
up to the walrus grounds just to the northwest of 
Marble Island. Last season this enterprise was con- 
ducted by George MacTavish, chief clerk, who, with 
a crew of half-breeds and Indians, took twenty-two 
large walruses in a few days, and could have easily se- 
cured as many more, only that the blubber from the 
carcasses of those he captured more than loaded his 
boats. He experienced a very successful trip, with 
the exception that one of his Indians died suddenly of 
heart disease during the voyage up. 

Aside from the walrus hunt, Mr. Spencer is develop- 
ing a large porpoise, or white whale fishery, on the 
very shores of Churchill harbor, where, with his nets 
and traps, he took, last season, one hundred and nine- 
ty of these mammals, of immense size. By increasing 
his facilities, five hundred or a thousand might be 
taken annually. Two large blubber refineries have 
been opened at Churchill, where the fat of the por- 
poise and walruses is refined and placed in casks ready 
for shipment to Europe. This oil, together with the 
furs which are taken from the natives in exchange for 
merchandise, and the ivory from the walrus, make up 
an annual budget at Churchill of great value. These 
products are exported each year in the company's 
ships, and find a ready market in the old world, to the 
great advantage of the Company's treasury. 






214 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

OBSERVATIONS AT YORK FACTORY. 

Buildings at the trading post— The Church and the School 
— An interesting murder trial. 

York factory at the mouth of the Nelson and Hayes 
rivers, is not the splendid place it was half a century 
ago, but is in good condition and is yet an important 
Hudson's Bay Company trading post. The buildings, 
of which there are about fifty belonging to the post 
proper, many of them large and handsome, are clean 
and bright-looking, and must have been erected at 
great expense. The main factory building is a square, 
with a court-yard in the center, being over two hun- 
dred feet on each side. The front center is three stories 
high, the other portion two stories. It is of wood, as 
are all the buildings belonging to the place. It stands 
back about three hundred feet from the front palisade, 
which runs along parallel with the Hayes River, upon 
which it fronts. 

Potatoes and turnips do pretty well in the gardens 
at York Factory. 

Away to the north of the village, about three miles, 
are the ruins of old Fort York, which was captured 
and destroyed by La Perouse in 1782. Between this 
and the new fort, as it is generally called, and near to 
the latter, is the powder magazine, enclosed by a high 
palisade, and the grave-yard. 

The little church within the palisade, where the white 
people attend service, is a neat structure, much like 
that at Churchill, but about double the size. It con- 
tains a melodeon, and is otherwise well appointed. 
Next to it is the -school house, just outside of the 
palisade. It is a neat, clean, well kept building, where 
in the summer months school is kept up from eight 



OBSERVATIONS AT YORK FACTORY. 



215 



o'clock in the morning until about five o'clock in the 
evening. There are, including white and Cree, about 
one hundred and twenty-five children. These have 
but one teacher, but are taught separately. 

The white . children attend school, and English 
branches are taught, from eight to half-past ten in the 
forenoon. From that 

hour until five in ALPHABET, 

the evening the In- 
dian children are 
taught in Cree, to 
read and write, and 
to apply the rudi- 
ments of arithmetic. 
Great progress has 
been made in the 
education of the 
Cree Indians. The 
same syllabic char- 
acters are used as in 
teaching Chippewa- 
yan. A number of 
useful text-books 
have been printed, 
and, through the 
indefatigable efforts 
of Mrs. Mason, the 
mother of Mrs. 
Fortesque, wife 
of Chief Factor 
Fortesque, the en- 
tire Old and New 
Testaments have 
been printed and published in the Cree language. It 
is a great credit to the efforts put forth at York factory, 
on behalf of education, that almost all the Indians 
there, who are of sufficient age, can read and write with 
ease in their own language. 

A few years ago the quiet of York Factory was dis- 



INITIALS. 


SYLLABLES' 


FINALS. 




a 


e 





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• 


a 


V 


A 


> 


< 


ow 


w 


•V 


•A 


> 


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X Christ 


P 


V 


A 


> 


< 


*P 


t 


U 


n 


D 


Q 


' t 


k 


<1 


p 


d 


b 


*k 


ch. 


1 


p 


J 


U 


"h 


m 


1 


r 


J 


L 


<m 


n 


T> 


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j» 


a. 


an 


s 


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The dot over any syllables lengthens the vowel eound 
OBBB INDUS SYLLABABIUH. 



2l6 



THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



turbed by a murder. In a brawl between two Indian 
women, named Nancy Natainew and Mary Quaqua, 
the former threw an ax at the latter, which she man- 
aged to avoid, but it struck her son John, a small boy, 
on the head. He died from the effects of the blow 
two days after. The woman, Natainew, was duly tried 
before Justice Fortesque in the school-house. Chief 
Factor Fortesque, besides exercising some judicial 
functions as the head officer at the post, is a Justice of 
the Peace for the Northwest Territories of Canada. 

D r . Matthews, 



cb <n «TM. 
no i>nNB F&4D vc *icn^ v=i 

nn brws wx v*^ vw Mj 

U& XM <W §, > s Ad MJ wuk> 
ir, am* v<\jqf\ o>rv3S vr^ w 
£, sa<"> tr £, cci^tj or s* aw 
£, en cjoirq >i tunc> 9 y?<=\ s* 
v_mn, tn>to turv ^i tk:, v^ 

>K£> fit fLAR !>Jin, UTJ CWL &, 

nn i>nM$ ec^u "D/ 1 , ^Kjcs^nc 

d"U "D/», 0"><K> vmji^A t>A0" 

>w a o^oy, A<*y cpo. «u)s\ 

"aPOSTISS' OBEID"— OHIPPSWATAS. 



acting as Clerk of 
the Court and 
Crown Prosecutor, 
interested himself in 
bringing the mur- 
deress to justice; 
but before the 
trial had proceeded 
far, he found him- 
self surrounded by 
many and great dif- 
ficulties. At the 
outset the natives 
were loud in their 
denunciations of the 
conduct of the 
hostile squaw, and 
manifested the 
greatest desire to 
see her brought un- 
der the penalties of 



British law, but as 
the trial proceeded, their manner became greatly 
changed. All the feelings of their race became aroused, 
and they looked upon the prosecution as a piece of 
tyranny or persecution on the part of the Hudson's 
Bay Company. Before the trial came on they had 
seen the whole affair, and related every phase of it 



OBSERVATIONS AT YORK FACTORY. 2\J 

with great exactness; but in the witness-box they 
knew nothing about it whatever. Indeed, they were 
dumb. As the examination progressed the feelings of 
the natives became more intense in favor of the pris- 
oner; and finally the woman, Natainew, became a mar- 
tyr to the fullest extent of their appreciation of the 
idea. 

It was plain that anything like conviction by the 
testimony of Indian witnesses would be an impossibil- 
ity, and Doctor Matthews .gave the case up, leaving it 
to the discretion of Justice Fortesque to deal with the 
squaw as he might think fit. She was sentenced to 
one month's imprisonment, and to the worse penalty 
of having her beautiful, long, black hair cut off close 
to her head. This punishment, in the eyes of her 
sympathizers, was nearly as bad as hanging. 

The Nelson and Hayes rivers, at the mouths of 
which York Factory is located, wind away to the 
southwest to Lake Winnipeg, a distance of about 
425 miles. There are over 100 rapids on the Nelson, 
all of which have to be portaged. 



16 



2l8 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

PORPOISE, WALRUS AND SEAL. 

Character and value of these animals — The porpoise fish- 
eries—The Walrus "hunt — Peculiarities of Narwhal — 
Probabilities of a seal breeding ground in Hudson's 
Strait — Great possibilities of the oil industry. 

Hudson's Bay and Strait are the dwellings of the 
porpoise, or white whale. There countless thousands 
may be seen tumbling' about on the waves and per- 
forming all sorts of sportive exercises. They herd to- 
gether in vast droves, often thousands and tens of 
thousands in one school. Sometimes these shoals 
will form in "Indian file" and shoot over the water, 
showing their backs like a long, black, winding, ever- 
changing streak on the surface of the sea. We met 
with them everywhere, and I am justified in saying 
that the waters are alive with them. 

Their mouths are furnished with sharp teeth, which 
are so arranged that they interlock when the jaws are 
closed; thus they are well provided with the means of 
capturing and devouring food. 

The porpoise is seldom seen in deep water, and gen- 
erally keeps pretty close to the coast, frequenting bays, 
inlets and the mouths of rivers. They generally 
ascend the rivers with the tides and will never go fur- 
ther up than the tidal flow, but will always stop when 
it stops, and descend with it. They are very fat and 
contain blubber similar to that of the whale. A good 
sized porpoise is worth $75. 

The walrus belongs to the seal family and presents 
a very grotesque appearance. Its head is its most 
conspicuous part. Its nose is covered with long bris- 
tles and its head with long wiry hair. Its ivory tusks, 
often eighteen inches long, project from the upper 



PORPOISE, WALRUS, SEAL. 219 

jaw. The tusks of the walrus are of a superior quality 
of ivory. 

The walrus is an exceedingly valuable animal, both 
as an article of commerce and to the Eskimo of the 
north. The blubber, ivory, and skin are always in de- 
mand. The tusks furnish ivory of a peculiarly white 
hue, said to hold its color longer than that of the ele- 
phant's tusk. The oil produced from the blubber is 
very delicate, and always commands a high price. The 
skin is thick and extremely tough, and is valuable to 
the Eskimo for dog-harness, and to civilized man for 
many purposes. The Eskimos use the tusks for har- 
poons, spears, and fish-spears; the intestines for nets; 
its oil and flesh for food, and its bones for kayak frames 
and other purposes. 

The narwhal, or sea unicorn, is valuable for its oil 
and ivory. Its horn, from five to seven feet long, is 
of the very finest ivory, and susceptible of an exceed- 
ingly high polish. A full sized horn is valued at from 
$60 to $80. 

The oil seal, which abounds in countless millions in 
the North Atlantic and adjacent seas and bays, is 
richly coated with blubber, while the skins are of great 
value either when tanned into leather or prepared 
with the fur on, and used for garments. Cod and 
salmon abound in the inlets on the south shores of 
Hudson's Strait. 



220 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 
FUR BEARING ANIMALS. 

The silver, blue, gray, red and white foxes — The ermine — 
The marten — The otter — The varying hare — The lynx 
— The wolf — The sable, musk ox, etc. — The fur trade. 

Having spoken of the oil-bearing mammals of the 
Hudson's Bay region and the economic fishes, we will 
now briefly direct attention to the fur-bearing animals 
of that district. In the first place, should the traveler 
in that region depend upon the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany's employes for his information concerning these 
resources, he will remain in ignorance. These people, 
when being questioned concerning the furs or other 
products, can manage to talk and yet say the least of 
any persons to be met with. 

Beaver are very scarce, but foxes are still plentiful. 
Of these there are many kinds, and the price of their 
skins ranges from one dollar to five hundred, so that 
the fur trader must be well versed in all these varieties 
in order to know the commercial value of the various 
skins brought to him for traffic. Foxes have so many 
names, and there are so many different names for the 
same kind of fox, that one meets with difficulty in at- 
tempting to describe them. We hear of the black, 
the blue, the silver, the gray, the cross, the red and the 
white fox. 

Probably the most fashionable fur of to-day is that 
of the silver fox, which is found plentifully in the Hud- 
son's Bay region. It is a rich, deep, glossy black, 
with a bluish tinge; so beautiful are they that $500 
has been given for a single skin, and La Houtan states 
that, in his time, the skin of one of these foxes brought 
its weight in gold. Skins frequently bring $250. Of 
the two thousand caught yearly in different parts of 
North America, about one thousand are used in Eng- 



FUR BEARING ANIMALS. 221 

land, and a much smaller number in the United States. 
The choicest skins are taken on the northern shores 
of Hudson's Strait and on the rough coast of the ex- 
treme northwestern portions of Hudson's Bay. Some 
are caught in Russia, but the fur is of a poorer quality 
and not valued so highly. 

The cross, red, blue, gray and white foxes are all of 
considerable importance, each having a certain com- 
mercial value. The best cross fox skins are worth $40 
each, and over 10,000 are shot or trapped in the 
northern regions yearly. The blue fox skins are worth 
$20 apiece, and about 7,000 are captured annually, but 
some of these are secured on the borders of the White 
Sea and in Greenland. The other varieties bring from 
one to five dollars each. Of the ordinary red fox over 
100,000 are secured every year by the Hudson's Bay 
Company's posts of the north. 

The fur of the ermine, or stoat, has been esteemed 
from ancient times, when only the nobility were al- 
lowed to wear it; but the demand for it to-day is as 
great as when the use of it was confined to the upper 
classes. They are small animals, but when the fur is 
secured in very cold weather, from the snow-clad 
slopes, their skins are valued at $250 each. 

There are many other varieties of valuable furs 
taken in the Hudson's Bay region, as will be seen by 
the following list showing the catch for one season in 
and about Cumberland House : 

Bear 372 Beaver 4,684 

Ermine 226 Fisher 50 

Blue Fox 4 Cross Fox 30 

Red Fox 91 White Fox 332 

Silver Fox 3 Lynx 442 

Marten 2,157 Mink 779° 

Musk-rat 180,791 Otter 424 

Skunk 6 Wolverine 175 

Wolf 76 Weenisk 1 

Musk-ox 1 



222 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS. 

Romance of the marriage of an Eskimo Princess— Habits of 
life— The Kayak. 

Before quitting the Hudson's Bay country we must 
relate a little piece of romance and say something 
about the Kayak and the Eskimos generally. One day 
in wandering among the rock hills on the south shore 
of Hudson's Strait in the neighborhood of Prince of 
Wales Sound, we came to a little inlet, a narrow arm 
of the sound extending in among the rocks, entirely 
hid from view until the traveler approached the water's 
edge. There were natives residing on both sides of 
the cove. It was evident that something unusual was 
going on. An old chief, with his great red cap, stood 
upon a cliff near his tent on one side, while, upon the 
waters of the lake-like inlet, a boat and half a dozen 
kayaks were filled with Eskimos, apparently enjoying 
a holiday. Upon inquiry, we found that the chief's 
daughter, his only child and a native beauty, had just 
given her hand in marriage to a young Eskimo. The 
event was much out of the general order of marriages, 
as the newly-made husband was to succeed the old 
chief as head-man over this scattered population. A 
few questions revealed sufficient romance to make the 
wedding very interesting. The story is given in the 
following measure: 

Nestled in rocks of gneiss, 

Formed while chaos-gloom yet shrouded earth, 

And sheltered by eternal snow-crowned cliffs, 

The placid waters of the cove, by not 

One ripple stirred, bore on their liquid breast 

Kayaks, trimmed out with spears and gaffs and hooks, 

A guard of honor due the pair made one 

In bonds unsanctified by rite of church or creed. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS. 223 

The whale-boat had, by generous loan, or from 

The loaner's wish to foster trade, contained, 

Besides the tawny brave and blushing bride, 

Seated aft on skins of Polar bear, four more 

Strong bending to the oars. Her jacket was 

Of seal, the tail bedecked with finer furs 

Contrasting shades and colors gay — not wide, 

But pennant-shaped, and further trimmed with strips 

Of feathered skins of Arctic birds of white 

And shades of every hue. Of raven black 

Her hair in braids hung down upon her breast, 

And falling back, trailed in the liquid blue. 

Her head was bare; nor was the use of veil 

Indulged, nor decorations grand, except 

A neatly twisted wreath, extending from 

Her forehead back, of Arctic poppies bright, 

And freshly gathered from the rocky shore. 

Her hands ungloved; her feet in boots of seal; 

Her neck was girt about with ivory balls 

And balls of Latrobite, strung on a thread 

Of skin, and from it, on her throbbing breast, 

Hung down a cross, hewn from a tusk, — 

A cross without a meaning to the bride, 

But patterned from the pictures left 

By sailors, who for furs had traded them. 

Her charms had famed her in a hundred camps, 

And far and wide her name, on native tongues, 

In words of praise and boast was spoken oft. 

A princess of a royal line of chiefs, 

An heir to idleness and ease, with right 

To be attended by the common herd 

And give command. Her home a ruler's hut, 

And hence a palace grand. The only heir 

And only child of Chief Utongkakum, 

Whose rule of thirty years as native chief 

Of Eskimos for many miles around 

Had blessed his race, and made his name a word 

For common use. The aged chief could not 

Much longer wear his modern cap of red, 

But soon his crown must rest on other's head. 

To gain the princess-daughter's hand was much 

To be desired for her natural charms, 

But more because with that the winner gained 

A crown. Princess Lu-killia-ke-a-kum 

Utongkakuk, by many suitors wooed, 

But won by none, until by test to find a man 

As true, as brave, and worthy to be called 

A chief, the conquest of her heart was made 

By young Shemomamik. 



224 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

The contest for her hand, the battle for 

The crown, was brought on thus. The evening shades 

Were falling, when, as four brave hunters sat 

On skins about her royal father's hut, 

Each waiting for the word, the answer to 

A prayer that sweet Lu-killia-ke-a-kum 

Would stoop to be his bride. Behold, a grim 

Huge Polar bear approached, but turned 

Away as yelping dogs disclosed to him 

His peril. The princess answered, pointing to 

The monster, king of Arctic seas: "To him 

Who brings, unaided but by lance and nerve, 

The soft, white pelt of that huge bear, 

I give my hand and grant my father's crown." 

The bear-skin on the whaler's stern-sheets spread, 
As cushion for the beauty, princess-bride, 
Was from the body of that bear. The groom, 
Whose arm supported her, and on whose head 
The ruling crown, a cap of reddish cloth, 
Reposed, and at whose side a lance was slung, 
Our hero! Brave Shemomamik had won! 



Now, there is very little ceremony connected with 
an Eskimo marriage, even with the marriage of a 
chief's only daughter, and that little consists of the 
fortunate man conducting his wife from the tent of her 
people to the tent of his people. That is all there is to 
it. And, very often, the little romance that might be 
connected with this performance is annihilated by the 
fact that the bride is so conducted against her will; for 
the Eskimos are mated, so to speak, while they are 
yet children. That is to say, the parents of the girl and 
the parents of the boy agree that, when the proper 
time comes, their children shall live together as man 
and wife. This agreement, of course, comes to the 
knowledge of the boy and girl concerned while they 
are yet very young, and it may be that they grow up 
to think very much of each other, and become happily 
joined together; but it may also happen that the girl 
will take a hearty dislike of the choice made on her 
behalf, and grow up to thoroughly hate and despise 
him. All the same, when he becomes old enough to 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS. 225 

maintain her by the chase, he demands his property 
as it were, and she is compelled to submit. But we 
must not suppose the latter to have been the case with 
the marriage in question. 

It is an error to state that the Eskimos have no 
chiefs, or "Uttericks," as they call them. They do not 
dwell in large settlements, but in every district the 
number of families dwelling there submit themselves, 
in many things, to the ruling voice and advice of their 
chief man, and generally contribute to his support. 
They are but little governed, and never go to war with 
each other, and seldom quarrel; However, they are 
not without courage. On the Coppermine and Mac- 
kenzie rivers, where they sometimes come into col- 
lision with the Indians, they fight fiercely, and are 
greatly dreaded. 

We must correct most writers on the customs of 
these people in saying that polygamy is rare among 
them. All their head men maintain two or three 
wives, and it is a sign of importance that a man sup- 
ports more than one wife. Moreover, they often sepa- 
rate, the man finding another wife and the woman an- 
other husband. 

Their courtship and marriage are very simple. They 
have only to do a limited amount of courting, and at 
a very early age — say ten or eleven for the girl, and 
twelve or thirteen for the boy — before they dwell to- 
gether as man and wife. There is neither marriage 
nor burial ceremony among the unchristianized Es- 
kimos. All is simplicity, and very unromantic. 

The whole Eskimo population of the world is put 
down at forty thousand. It is probably less. There 
are, perhaps, not more than ten thousand between 
Cape Chidley on the north Atlantic and Alaska; cer- 
tainly not over fifteen thousand. 

They remain for the most part pretty close to the 
shores. Even on hunting expeditions they follow 
some coast. On the eastern side of the continent they 
extend southward to the fiftieth parallel of latitude, 



226 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

while on the western side they are seldom found south 
of the sixtieth, on the eastern shore of Bering's Strait. 
On the shores of Hudson's Bay, 55 north latitude, is 
their southern limit. 

Throughout this vast domain no other tribes in- 
tervene, except in two places on the western shore, 
where Kennayan and Uglange Indians come down to 
the sea for purposes of fishing. Rink divides them 
into the following groups: 

1. The East Greenland Eskimos, few in number, 
every year advancing further south. 

2. The West Greenland Eskimo, civilized, living un- 
der Danish rule, and extending from Cape Farewell 
to 74 north latitude. 

3. The Arctic Eskimos, living in the neighborhood 
of Smith's, Whale, Murchison's and Wolstenholme 
sounds, not, within the memory of man, having any 
intercourse with those residing south of them. They 
are very isolated and have greatly diminished in num- 
bers of late years. These Eskimos did not until very 
recently possess the kayak — skin-covered canoe — nor 
the uomiak, or open skin boat; nor the bow and ar- 
row. They are bold hunters, pagans, and are thor- 
oughly typical Eskimos. There are at present about 
300 of these people, and one authority says that they 
have begun to increase in numbers again. 

4. The Labrador Eskimos, mostly civilized. 

5. The Eskimos of the interior, occupying the coasts 
of Hudson's Bay, Hudson's Strait, and westward to 
Barter Island, beyond the Mackenzie River, inhabiting 
a stretch of country 2,000 miles long and 800 miles 
wide. 

6. The Western Eskimos, from Barter Island to the 
western shores of America. These differ somewhat 
from the others in their habits and style of dress, and 
they are allied to certain Indian tribes in Alaska. 

7. The Asiatic Eskimos, different altogether from 
those of America, with whom they have no connection 
whatever. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS. 22/ 

First, as to their appearance. They are not a very 
small race. Their height is about five feet eight inches 
or five feet ten inches, sometimes six feet, but rarely; 
but their style of dress makes them look smaller than 
they are. Both men and women are muscular and 
active, having pleasant, good-natured faces. Some- 
times they are handsome. They are sure to "grin" on 
the slightest provocation. 

Their faces are oval, broad and flat, with fat cheeks. 
The forehead is not high, and quite retreating. Their 
teeth are good, but owing to the character of their food 
are worn down to the gums by the time they have 
reached old age. Their noses are flat, generally, but 
not always. Their eyes are small, black and bright. 
Their heads are large and covered with coarse, black 
hair, which the women generally keep in braids, or 
dress into a top-knot on their crowns; the men clip 
their hair in front and allow it to fly loose behind. The 
men have a slight mustache and insignificant whiskers. 
The skin, when cleaned of grease and smoke, is only 
so slightly brown that red shows readily in the cheeks, 
especially of the women and children. 

They soon age, and seldom live to be over sixty. 
Their hands and feet are small and well-formed, and 
as a rule they are better looking than the best of the 
Indians. The men, women and children dress entirely 
in skins of the seal, reindeer, bear, dog, and even fox; 
but the first two greatly predominate. The men and 
women dress much the same. The jacket of the men 
has a hood which, in cold weather, is used to cover the 
head, leaving only the face exposed. This jacket must 
be drawn on over the head, as it has no opening either 
in front or behind. The women's jacket has a fur-lined 
"amowt," or large hood, for carrying a child, and a 
very absurd-looking tail behind, which is generally 
trimmed. 

The trousers are usually fastened into the tops of 
boots well made from prepared sealskin. The wom- 
en's trousers are nearly always ornamented with 



228 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

eider duck's necks or embroidery of beads, or other 
decorations. In the winter they wear two suits of 
clothes, boots, trousers, jacket and all, one with the 
fur out, and the other, that worn next the body, with 
the fur turned in. They also sometimes wear shirts of 
bird-skins, and stockings under their boots of dog or 
young reindeer skin, but this is noticeable only in the 
case of chiefs. 

Their clothes, like all other articles of Eskimo manu- 
facture, are very neatly made, fit perfectly, and are 
sewed with "sinew-thread" and a bone needle, if a steel 
one cannot be had. In person they are usually filthy, 
and never wash themselves. The children, when very 
young, are sometimes cleaned by being licked with 
their mother's tongue before being put into the bag 
of feathers, which serves them as bed, cradle and blan- 
kets, when they are lucky enough to have such bags, 
they being more generally consigned to the "amowt," 
without clothing of any kind. % 

In summer the Eskimos live in conical skin tents, 
and in winter in half underground huts (igloos) built 
of stone, turf, earth, etc., entered by a long tunnel-like 
passage which can only be traversed on all fours. 
Sometimes they erect neat dwellings from blocks of 
snow, with a sheet of ice for a window. These are 
comfortable only in cold weather. As soon as the 
soft weather of spring comes they begin to leak and 
are deserted. 

In their dwellings one will always find a stone lamp, 
the flames of which, being fed by oil through a wick of 
moss, supply both heat and light. On one side of the 
tent is the bed or lounge where, on innumerable skins 
of all kinds, they sleep and lay around day and night. 
The floor is usually very filthy, being often defiled by a 
pool of blood or the carcass of a seal. 

These tents or huts are always surrounded by a host 
of wolf-like dogs. These, in summer, sleep outside, 
but in winter in the huts, or in the passages leading to 
them. Sometimes one hut or tent accommodates two 



— 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE ESKIMOS. 229 

or three families, but more often each family will have 
a dwelling by itself. 

They are exclusively hunters and fishers, and derive 
nearly the whole of their subsistence from the sea. 
They use no vegetables, and live exclusively upon the 
flesh of animals and fish. The seal and other oil-bear- 
ing animals, the reindeer, the polar bear, supply them 
with food, clothing, fuel and light, and frequently also, 
when driftwood is scarce, the material for various 
articles of domestic economy. 

The shuttle-shaped kayak, covered with hairless 
seal-skin, usually stretched on a wooden frame, is 
sometimes made on a frame of bones from the walrus, 
or of horns from the reindeer. 

One of the most attractive features of Eskimo life 
is the kayak. What the canoe is to the Indian, the 
kayak is to the husky denizen of the north. They are 
not the same in shape, nor in construction, nor in any- 
thing else, except in weight, and in the dangers to 
which a greenhorn is exposed in attempting to navi- 
gate them. In shape they are similar to an old-fash- 
ioned weaver's shuttle, and draw less water than the 
ordinary canoe. They are about thirty feet long, not 
more than two feet from top to bottom at the center, 
and about thirty inches wide at the same point. The 
top is straight from forward point to stern point, ex- 
cept that from the center to the ends each way they 
gradually become narrower, until at the points the 
width is not over two or three inches; and from the 
center, each way toward the ends, and toward the top 
as well, the bottom slants upwards and outwards, until 
at the points the thickness is about two inches. It is 
flat at the bottom, but much narrower than at the top. 
There is a round hole at the top, at the center, formed 
by a hoop, to which the sealskin is attached. The Es- 
kimo sits in this hole, with his feet stretched out toward 
the forward end and his head and shoulders above it. 
The Eskimo in his kayak is generally covered with a 
waterproof entrail dress, tightly fastened around the 



230 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

mouth of the hole in which he sits * so that, should the 
craft overturn, which sometimes happens, not a drop 
of water will enter. A skillful kayaker can turn a com- 
plete somersault, kayak and all, through the water. 

It is a sight to see an Eskimo fighting a walrus in 
one of these kayaks. The latter invariably attempts 
to pierce the kayak with his tusks ; but when he makes 
the venture, in his foolhardy courage, he not only fails 
to succeed, the little craft being too nimble in the water 
to give him any chance, but receives a harpoon in his 
side, or is pierced to the heart with a deadly lance. 
With a buoy attached to the carcass to keep his prize 
from sinking, the hunter paddles it in tow to the shore. 

The natives use but one paddle in the kayak; but 
it is not the same as that used by the Indians in the 
canoe. It is a double paddle; that is to say, both ends 
are flattened, and, in paddling, first one end is used 
and then the other, on one side and the other alter- 
nately. The central portion of the paddle is round, 
and the water is prevented from running down on the 
hands, as the instrument is used, by pieces of skin 
which are placed tightly around at the proper places. 
A new beginner will have some trouble in navigating 
the kayak, and it will be well for him, at first, to keep 
in shallow water. It tips over with the slightest provo- 
cation, and, as you cannot extricate yourself from the 
hole without some little difficulty, and are precipitated 
into the water head first, it becomes a matter of im- 
portance that you either know how to balance yourself 
properly, or are prepared for a plunge bath. One of 
our party, in making the attempt, went over head first 
into ten fathoms of water; but, as he was a good swim- 
mer, he soon managed to kick himself loose and take 
refuge in a neighboring boat. It does not take long, 
however, to learn to handle one, and we would rec- 
ommend kayak clubs as a means of healthy amuse- 
ment for young Americans. 



NATURE'S NEWEST LAND. 23 1 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

NATURE'S NEWEST LAND. 

Wonders of the new north— Product of natural laws for the 
last one thousand years — Specific work of glaciers — New 
areas for many millions — Probable gold and othei* 
products — Hard times to disappear as dew before an 
advancing sun. 

We are nearing the completion of this work, and 
must now speak of the probable future of the Golden 
North Land. Gold mining is already the pioneer in- 
dustry, and it must be through the excitements and 
push of this enterprise that the great resources of the 
far north will become known and developed. The 
thirst and search for gold will carry a vast population 
to parallels above the fifty-fifth and sixtieth, but when 
the rich deposits of the yellow metal have given up 
the bulk of their treasure, which will probably not be 
realized for more than two generations, those high 
latitudes will not be deserted. Other richer and pos- 
sibly more permanent resources will hold a mighty 
population there for all time to come. 

One of the most remarkable characteristics of the 
north — one pre-eminently for the solution of scien- 
tists — is that, with every succeeding century, the cli- 
mate and soil become better adapted to the habitation 
and pursuits of man. It has been estimated that, on 
an average, soil and vegetation, forests, and in their 
train, cereal capabilities, are marching upward across 
the parallels of latitude at the rate of considerably over 
a hundred miles in a century. 

The author has traveled across the continent, above 
and below the sixtieth parallel, from the Atlantic to 
the Rocky Mountains, touching the Hudson's Bay 
trading posts on the following chain, and at each point 
named, the same story was told by those in charge, to 



232 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

wit: That the soil is every year increasing in its depth 
and capabilities, the climate gradually improving, and 
forest resources rapidly developing. Starting at Nach- 
vak, on the Upper Labrador, nearly up to the sixtieth 
parallel, we learn from the traders that while, ioo years 
ago the largest specimens of tamarac and spruce were 
not more than four feet high, and that these bushes 
were scarce at that, to-day Nachvak inlet, from the 
Hudson's Bay trading post, which is twenty miles 
from the coast, up the river for a long distance there 
is an abundance of forest trees from six to fifteen inches 
at the butt, and from twenty to fifty feet in height, 
some of them much higher. The garden at the trading 
post now produces quite a variety of vegetables, 
whereas, a century back, little or nothing in that line 
could be cultivated. 

These remarks will apply with equal, and in most 
cases, far greater force, o Fort Chimo at the head of 
Ungava Bay; to Fort George, at the mouth of Big 
River on the east main coast of Hudson's Bay; to 
Moose Factory, at the mouth of Albany River, on 
James' Bay ; to Fort Severn, at the mouth of the river 
of that name on the southwest shore of Hudson's 
Bay; to Fort York and Fort Churchill, on the western 
shores of the same bay; to Fort Chippewyan, on Lake 
Athabasca; to Fort Resolution on Great Slave Lake; 
to Fort Providence, on the western extreme of the 
same lake; to Fort Franklin, on Great Bear Lake; and 
to. Fort Simpson, and even to Fort Normal), on the 
Mackenzie River. 

The natural laws under which Providence is pushing 
back the cold of the north towards the pole, and ex- 
tending the regions for man's profitable occupancy, do 
not yet appear to be fully understood. Many travelers 
of the far north, some of them men of scientific at- 
tainments, contend that there is a very slow and almost 
imperceptible revolution of the earth from north to 
south, but meteorological phenomena in the south, 
which, however, is not very fully understood, scarcely 



NATURE'S NEWEST LAND. 233 

warrants such a theory. We leave this question to 
those better able to grapple with it. However, the 
facts are as we state them. Northern thermal limits 
are -moving northward, and forests, vegetation and 
agricultural possibilities follow closely upon these ad- 
vancing limits. Why and wherefore, we know not. 

Many learned men talk strangely about "glacial 
periods." Much of this appears to be absurd to those 
who visit and commune with the glaciers of the far 
north. Far too much is charged up to glaciers. At 
any rate that is the belief of the author. It would seem 
that glaciers are simply river builders, and when they 
have accomplished this task, they depart for tropical 
seas where they are dissolved. 

It must be a mistake to suppose that there was any 
soil or vegetation on the solid formation of the great 
North American plain, which now comprises the 
Mississippi basin, when monster glaciers chiseled out 
the channels of the Father of Waters, and its princi- 
pal tributaries. Icebergs seldom, if ever — we think 
never — work in latitudes w r here they can be dissolved 
before reaching the ocean. Natural laws do not oper- 
ate in such a futile way. Under such circumstances a 
glacier would sink into dissolution with its task but 
half done. 

It is more reasonable to suppose that at some period 
in the past a line drawn due west from the site of New 
York City to that of San Francisco, traversed the most 
northern habitable limit of the continent. Existing 
prehistoric remains support this theory. Glaciers are 
drainage constructors. They prepare the natural 
drainage systems of the earth's surface, and make 
ready the barren areas, for the coming of soil and 
vegetation, and, if one will look at the great river 
systems of this continent, he will conclude that they 
do their work well, leaving it in such a state of per- 
fection that the hand of man finds it quite easy to 
carry it forward to suit his necessities. When a mighty 
glacier has chiseled out a deep channel four or six or 

16 



234 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

ten or fifty or 500 miles long, and enters the sea, the 
track left behind is called an inlet. When it has, later 
on, become bordered with soil and forests, it is called a 
river. 

These hints give a new interest to the north land. 
It is a country of great resources already, and with 
each succeeding generation it will improve in this re- 
spect. There is wealth enough in its auriferous regions 
to make a million persons rich, and its greater alluvial 
areas will, in the not far distant future, support a vast 
population, who will become rich in supplying the 
world's markets with bread, and meat, and butter and 
cheese, and other soil products. 

The gold deposits of the far north are nearly, if not 
quite, inexhaustible. Long before the rich placer gold 
regions have been gone over or even explored, quartz 
gold mines of great richness will be opened and profit- 
ably worked, and while the gold is being taken from 
the earth, during the next few years, many thousands 
will go to that country. Some will grow rich in the 
transportation business; others in mining and selling 
coal; thousands will gain wealth in silver and other 
minerals; forests which invite sawmills will yield up 
their treasures; the carpenter and builder and plumber 
and gasntter will leave overcrowded industries in 
these older cities to find profitable employment in the 
north ; merchandising will be a means of great gains in 
that land of high latitudes; the blacksmith and the 
machinist will thrive there; so will the baker and the 
barber; the hotel, restaurant and boardinghouse keep- 
er will flourish; and, later on, horse and cattle ranch- 
men, with their herds on the plains to the east of the 
mountains, will enter upon an era of wonderful pros- 
perity, to be closely followed by the agriculturist, who 
will enjoy even greater gains. 

It will be from the development of these resources, 
more than from anything else, that general prosperity 
will return to the United States. That wonderfully rich 
north land will, it is believed by some, produce gold, 



NATURE'S NEWEST LAND. 235 

most of which will be coined into money and put in 
circulation in the United States, in about the extent 
and ratio represented by the following diagram: 



1897 

$5,000,000 



1898 
$15,000,000 



1900 

$45,000,000 



1901 

$100,000,000 



1902 

$200,000,000 



1903 

$300,000,000 



1904 

$400,000,000 



1905 

$500,000,000 



1906 

$600,000,000 



1907 

$700,000,000 



Possible Ten Year, $2,865,000,000 Product. 



236 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

If this enthusiastic forecast is half realized, there will 
be no scarcity of money in this country, and million- 
aires will spring up among the common people every- 
where. Hard times will disappear as dew before an as- 
cending sun. The silver agitator will "lose his useful- 
ness," and the days of the socialist crank and the an- 
archist will come to a close in this country. 

It is within the bounds of solid facts to say that two 
good miners working together can produce $10,000 
each in the gold regions of the far north annually. This 
may be regarded as a minimum average. Then why 
should people starve or suffer in these lower latitudes. 
Listen to the clanging of the Klondike bells! Buckle 
on the armor for battle with the snows and frosts and 
mosquitoes of the north; endure hardships for a season 
or two, and peace and plenty will probably be your lot 
thereafter. 



GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 237 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 

Great increase of 1897 over 1896— Probable stability of the 
gold product of the Klondike — Influence of increased 
gold supply on silver— Gold monometallism likely to be 
continued — Views of Director Preston of the United 
States Mint. 

We have at hand some valuable statistics from R. E. 
Preston, director of the United States Mint, at Wash- 
ington, D. C. He gives the probable output of gold 
for 1897, and a very valuable contribution to gold 
statistics generally. His article which recently was 
printed in the New York Herald is as follows: 

"That gold exists in large quantities in the newly 
discovered Klondike district is sufficiently proved by 
the large amount brought out by the steamship com- 
panies and miners returning to the United States who 
went into the district within the last eighteen months. 
So far $1,500,000 in gold from the Klondike district 
has been deposited at the mints and assay offices of the 
United States, and from information now at hand,there 
are substantial reasons for believing that from $3,000,- 
000 to $4,000,000 additional will be brought out by the 
steamers and returning miners from St. Michael the 
last of September or early October (1897). One of 
the steamship companies states that it expects to bring 
out about $2,000,000 on its steamer sailing from St. 
Michael September 30 (1897), and has asked the gov- 
ernment to have a revenue cutter act as a convoy 
through the Bering Sea. In view of the facts above 
stated I am justified in estimating that the Klondike 
district will augment the world's gold supply in 1897 
nearly $6,000,000. 



238 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

"The gold product for the Dominion of Canada for 
1896, as estimated by Dr. G. M. Dawson, director of 
the geological survey of that country, was $2,810,000. 
Of this sum the Yukon placers, within British territory, 
were credited with a production of $355,000. The total 
product of that country for 1897 has, therefore, been 
estimated at $10,000,000, an increase over 1896 of $7,- 
200,000. From this the richness of the newly discov- 
ered gold fields of the Klondike is evident. 

"In this connection it is important to know what 
will be the probable increase in the several countries of 
the world, and for the purpose of comparison, based 
upon information received, the following table of the 
gold product of the United States, Australia, Africa, 
Mexico, the Dominion of Canada, Russia and British 
India for 1896, and the estimated product of these 
countries for 1897 is here given: 

1896. 1897. Increase. 

United States . . $53,000,000 $60,000,000 $7,000,000 

Australia 46,250,000 52,000,000 5,750,000 

Africa 44,000,000 56,000,000 12,000,000 

Mexico 7,000,000 9,000,000 2,000,000 

Dom. of Canada 2,810,000 10,000,000 7,200,000 

Russia 22,000,000 25,000,000 3,000,000 

British India .. 5,825,000 7,000,000 1,175,000 

Totals $180,885,000 $219,000,000 $38,125,000 

• "The world's gold product for 1896 is estimated to 
have been $205,000,000. In justification of the above 
estimate of the increase in the countries mentioned I 
may remark that of the United States is based upon 
the deposits at the mints and assay offices for the first 
six months of the year, which clearly indicate a largely 
increased production, and that the increase for the year 
will aggregate $7,000,000. The gold product of Af- 
rica for 1896 is estimated to have been $44,000,000. 
For the first six months of 1897 the output of the Wit- 
watersrandt mines, as shown by official returns, was 
1 >33^,43i ounces, an increase of 333,928 ounces, as 



GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 239 

compared with the first six months of 1896. There is 
no doubt that the rate of production in the Witwater- 
srandt mines will be maintained for the remainder of 
the year, and their output of gold for 1897 will be fully 
$12,000,000 greater than that of 1896. 

"The deposits of gold at the Australian mints for the 
first five months of the year clearly indicate a sub- 
stantial gain in 1897 over 1896. Upon the basis of the 
deposits for the first five months at the mints the Aus- 
tralian Insurance and Banking Record for the month 
of June estimates that the gold product for 1897 of the 
several colonies will aggregate 2,700,000 ounces, of the 
value of $52,550,000. This would be an increase of 
$5,750,000 over the product of 1896. 

"The gold product of Mexico for 1896 is estimated 
to have been $7,000,000. The information received 
indicates that the product for 1897 will approximate 
$9,000,000, an increase of $2,000,000. 

"The Russian product for 1896 was $22,000,000; 
for 1897 it is estimated at $25,000,000, an increase of 
$3,000,000. 

"The gold product of British India for 1896, from 
official information received, is estimated at $5,825,000. 
The returns of the mines for the first six months of 1897 
indicate an increased production over 1896 of $38,- 
700,000, and that the world's product for 1897 can 
therefore be estimated at not less than $240,000,000. 
There is no doubt that the world's product of gold will 
continue to increase for a number of years to come, 
as new mines will be opened up in all parts of the 
world, and, with improved appliances for mining and 
methods of extracting the gold contained in the ores, 
I believe that by the close of the present century the 
world's gold product will closely approximate, if not 
exceed, $300,000,000. 

"I have spoken above of the addition likely to be 
made in 1897 to the world's stock of gold by the Klon- 
dike district, by the Transvaal, by the United States, 
Australia, Russia, Mexico, India, etc. . Of all these 



240 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

gold producing countries, of course, the Klondike is 
at present the one of most absorbing interest. It 
strikes the imagination to-day as California did the 
minds of the '49ers. It will add in 1897 possibly $6,- 
000,000 to the gold treasures of the world. 

"Now as to the influence of such addition to the 
world's gold. The influence it will exert depends main- 
ly on how many years the Klondike district shall con- 
tinue a producer and how large its annual increment 
to the world's existing stock of gold shall be. There 
is every reason to believe that Alaska and the ad- 
jacent British territory are possibly as rich in gold as 
was California or Australia when first discovered. I 
have estimated that the Klondike district will in 1897 
produce $6,000,000 worth of gold. It will add to this 
product from year to year probably for a minimum of 
one or two decades. And whether the gold comes 
from American or British territory is a matter of in- 
difference, except to the owners, and, to some extent, 
to the countries producing it. The effect of the increase 
on the economic condition of mankind, on the rate of 
discount, the rate of interest, the rate of wages, on 
prices and on monetary policies, of a newly discovered 
gold field of wonderful richness is the same, whether 
the field be located in American, British or Chinese 
territory. 

"Now, the first influence that the new addition to 
the world's existing stock of gold will have will be felt 
by silver. In fact, it has already been felt by it. Gold 
is the natural competitor — we might always say an- 
tagonist — of silver as a monetary medium, and every 
ounce of gold newly placed on the market deprives 
from 17 1-2 to 35 ounces of silver of a possible employ- 
ment as money that it might have. I say this because 
gold, weight for weight, is now worth thirty-six and 
six tenths times as much silver, and because, at most, 
half of the gold discovered finds industrial employ- 
ment. 

The new additions to the world's stock of gold, 






GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 241 

whether they come from the Klondike, Cripple Creek, 
or the Transvaal, from India, Australia, or Russia, 
will render bimetallism by the United States alone 
more difficult and more improbable than ever, and will 
even seriously imperil the slender chances that in- 
ternational bimetallism now has. 

"Bimetallists have long been asking the question 
where the gold is to be found that is to take the place 
of the silver demonetized. The discoveries at Cripple 
Creek, in the Transvaal, and on the Klondike are a suf- 
ficient answer to this question. The mines of the world 
have been turning out gold of late years in greater pro- 
fusion than ever before. The year 1893 marks an 
epoch in this respect. In the report of the director of 
the mint upon the production of the precious metals 
in the United States during the calendar year 1893, 
I called attention to the fact that the world's output of 
gold in that year was the largest in history, amounting 
to $155,522,000, and that it was 16.08 per cent greater 
than the annual average of the period of the greatest 
productiveness of the Californian and Australian gold 
mines. 

"And in the report of the same series of the calendar 
year 1894, 1 remarked that the value of the world's pro- 
duction of gold in that year not only equaled the aver- 
age value of both gold and silver in the period of 1861- 
1865, but exceeded it by $11,204,600, and that the 
probability expressed by me in 1893 that the value of 
the world's output of gold in 1895 and 1896 would 
equal that of both metals in the years immediately pre- 
ceding the beginning of the depreciation of silver had 
been changed into a certainty by the events of 1894, 
since the average annual yield of gold and silver of all 
countries in the period 1866-1873 exceeded that of gold 
alone in 1894 by less than $11,000,000. If the pro- 
duction of gold in 1897 reaches that figure, which I 
confidently believe it will, of $240,000,000, it will ex- 
ceed the average yearly value of both the gold and sil- 
ver product of the world for the period of eight years — 

16 



242 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

1866 to 1873 — which just preceded the beginning of 
the depreciation of silver, viz., $190,831,000 — by over 
$50,000,000. 

"Leaving out of consideration, therefore, the in- 
dustrial employment of the two metals, the world now 
annually produces in gold alone some $50,000,000 
more for monetary uses than it did in both gold and sil- 
ver during the eight years (on an average) that pre- 
ceded the beginning of the depreciation of the latter 
metal. 

"On the supposition that silver has entirely ceased 
to be coined, the world is richer in 1897 in material for 
the coinage of full legal tender or standard money than 
it was at any former period of the world's history, and 
the indications are that it will grow richer in this re- 
spect in every succeeding year for decades to come. 

"Hence my belief that the first effect of the new ad- 
ditions of gold to the stock already in existence will be 
an effect detrimental to bimetallism, whether national 
or international. There are some, I know, who think 
that the increased production of gold will have the con- 
trary effect, and that it will lead to the remonetiza- 
tion of silver. They base their argument on this, that 
the increased production of gold will be followed by a 
depreciation of its value. This might be if the new 
demand for gold did not increase more rapidly than 
the supply. But the former is likely to exceed the lat- 
ter. 

"There is, in fact, at the present time, no limit to the 
demand for gold. The tendency of nations is toward 
the single gold standard. Apart from the United 
States, there is not, I believe, a country on the face of 
the earth that would not adopt gold monometallism if 
it had the ability to do so, with silver as a subsidiary 
or token coinage. There is not a country in Europe 
with any full legal tender silver coins but would re- 
place them with gold coins if it could do so without too 
great a sacrifice. Germany would gladly put $100,000,- 
000 in circulation, instead of its silver thalers. France 



GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 243 

and all the countries of the Latin Union would replace 
their full legal tender 5-franc pieces by gold could they 
easily get it. Russia's demand for gold is unbounded. 
Austria-Hungary cannot get enough, and so of every 
other country in Europe. Japan wants gold now that 
it has adopted the gold standard. Even China shows 
an inclination to follow the example of its conqueror, 
but that, of course, is out of the question. All South 
America is crying for gold. Chili wants it, Colombia 
wants it, Peru wants it. Venezuela has some but wants 
more. Central America wants it. Even Mexico, the 
last stronghold of silver, is feeling the burdensome- 
ness of its present system in the height of its rate of ex- 
change. 

"More than this. The nations of Europe want gold, 
not only as currency, but as war material, for they 
have come to understand that gold — -gold, not all kinds 
of money — is the sinew of war. Germany has a gold 
fund locked up in a fortress, and the accumulations of 
that metal made by other governments, ostensibly for 
different purposes, are really only so much war ma- 
terial, which the nations of Europe can no more dis- 
pense with than they can with a standing army or a 
navy. And where no such fund can be actually pointed 
to, as in England, there is felt the confidence that it 
can be had at any time on the credit of the nation. 
Then it must be remembered that all great loans are 
now made and must be made in gold. Only home 
loans are made in any other medium. This disposes 
of the contention that there is likely to be any depre- 
ciation in the value of gold consequent on the increased 
supply. 

"Will the new additions to the gold stock of the 
world have any effect on prices? Should the increase 
of the world's production due to the yield of gold in 
the Klondike district, as well as in the Transvaal, be 
any way near as large as that due to the mines of Cal- 
ifornia and Australia in the years immediately succeed- 
ing the discovery of the metal in those countries, it 



244 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

probably will, in time, especially if the new additions 
bear the same proportion to the already existing stock 
of gold in the world as did those of California and Aus- 
tralia. But any increase of prices that may thereby be 
caused will be gradual and may not be noticed for some 
years to come. It cannot be noticed until gold begins 
to depreciate in value, and of that there is no present 
prospect. 

''Shortly after the discovery of gold in California 
and Australia there was a very marked rise in the gen- 
eral level of prices, which writers on the subject have 
generally attributed to the decline of the value of gold 
at that time. French Publicists were the first to call 
attention to this phenomenon. This was in 1851, 1852 
and 1853. Chevalier wrote about it in 1857. I n x 857 
another eminent French writer published a book en- 
titled "The Question of Gold," in which he showed the 
greatness of the rise, and the consequences, favorable 
or otherwise, which it might have for individuals or 
for states. The following year Chevalier took up the 
subject anew and endeavored to forecast the commer- 
cial and social effects which the decline of gold might 
have in the future. In England several statisticians 
noticed the same depreciation about the same time. 
Newmarch and Macculloch doubted it. But in 1863 
Stanley Jevons demonstrated it in his essay, 'A Serious 
Fall in the Value of Gold Ascertained and Its Social 
Effects Set Forth.' Ten years later De Foville, after a 
long and laborious investigation, came also to the con- 
clusion that there had been a decrease in the purchas- 
ing power of money. 

"While the value of gold was thus declining there 
was a sudden and extraordinary increase in the supply 
of the metal. From 183 1 to 1840 the annual production 
had not exceeded, on an average, 20,289 kilograms, or 
$13,484,000. From 1 84 1 to 1850, after the rich aurifer- 
ous deposits of the Ural, and especially of Siberia, had 
begun to be worked, the average annual product rose 
to 54759 kilograms, or $36,393,000. The annual av- 



GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 245 

erage was abruptly raised by the discovery of the gold 
diggings of California and Australia to 199,388 kilo- 
grams, or $132,513,000, from 185 1 to 1855, and to an 
annual average of 101,750 kilograms, or $134,083,- 
000, from 1856 to i860. The production subsequently 
averaged 185,057 kilograms, or $122,989,000, from 
1861 to 1865, and 195,026 kilograms, or $129,614,000, 
from 1866 to 1870. From 1493, that is from the discov- 
ery of America, until 1850, that is in 357 years, the 
quantity produced was 4,752,070 kilograms, or $3,158,- 
223,000. From 1 85 1 to 1870, in 20 years, the quantity 
of gold produced was 3,905,205 kilograms, or $2,595,- 
996,000. This newly extracted gold, therefore, repre- 
sented more than 82 per cent of the production anterior 
to 1850, and more than 45 per cent of the total produc- 
tion after 1493. 

"It is easy to see that such a revolution in the con- 
ditions of production caused a decline of gold which 
became manifest in a rise of prices. 

"The rise of prices was general at first. In 1858, ac- 
cording to Levasseur, the price of wheat, compared 
with the price in 1848 had doubled; the price of natural 
products, compared with the price in 1847, had in- 
creased 67.19 per cent; the price of manufactured 
articles compared with that of 1847 fta d risen 14.94 per 
cent; the average price of all commodities had in- 
creased 61.61 per cent. The learned writer took care 
to remark that the rise of prices was not due exclusive- 
ly to the decline of gold. He admitted in the first place, 
that war and famine had caused a rise of about 20 per 
cent in the prices of natural as distinguished from man- 
ufactured products, and of 2 per cent in manufactured 
products, and that besides, speculation in 1856 had 
swollen all prices to the extent of 5 per cent. Leaving 
out of consideration these transitory causes, natural 
products had increased, in 1858, by 42.19 per cent, 
manufactured products by 7.94 per cent, all commodi- 
ties considered as a whole by an everage of 25 per cent. 
From this rise of 25 per cent it was necessary to deduct 



246 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

5 per cent in order to take into account the effect of 
the developments of industry and of the increase of 
the number of consumers. As a final result he found 
that the greater abundance of gold had caused a rise 
of 20 per cent in prices. A decline in the value of 
money thus amounted to 16.67 P er cent - 

"In 1863, Stanley Jevons reached a conclusion al- 
most the same. He believed that the decline of gold 
could not be less than 15 per cent, and that it might 
be more. In 1863 or thereabouts, the consequences 
of the decline began to be less apparent than in 1858. 
The general rise of prices was succeeded by move- 
ments of a very different kind. Several causes which 
Mr. Levasseur had already drawn attention to began 
either to counteract or to strengthen the effects of the 
plentifulness of the standard metal, so that in the case 
of certain commodities there came a decline instead of 
a rise, while in others the decline became greater still. 

"In 1873, when Mr. De Foville published the results 
of his investigations concerning prices, the movement 
which in 1850 was faintly outlined, became very marked 
and well defined. That writer showed that the prices 
of 1873 presented, as compared with those of half a 
century before, a rise of 90 per cent for foods of animal 
origin, of 30 per cent for vegetable foods, and 45 per 
cent for domestic liquors. He showed, on the other 
hand, a decline of prices of 35 per cent for mineral pro- 
ducts, of 50 per cent for textiles and 45 per cent for 
chemical products, glassware and paper. 

"By a combination of rises and declines of prices, 
according to the method which he called that of budget 
averages, Mr. De Foville came to the conclusion that 
there had been an increase of 33 per cent in the prices 
of commodities, corresponding to a decrease of 25 
per cent in the purchasing power of money from the 
period of 1820-25 to 1870-75. 

"It will be remarked that in this period of fifty years 
the quantity of gold produced almost trebled as com- 
pared with the 332 years between 1493 and 1825. The 



GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 247 

quantities produced amounted in 1825 to 3,926,510 kil- 
ograms, or $2,609,558,000, and in 1875 to 9,523,- 
696 kilograms, or $6,329,448,000. Yet the decline of 
gold was only 25 per cent. It must be remarked, how- 
ever, that this depreciation of 25 per cent was due to a 
combination of causes of various kinds, and was not 
due entirely to the abundance of gold. Between 1825 
and 1875 an economic revolution was accomplished 
in the world greater than most political revolutions. 
To describe the revolution just referred to would be 
to write the industrial, commercial, financial and mone- 
tary history of those fifty years. 

"Judging from the effect of the gold discoveries in 
California and Australia in gradually raising general 
prices from 1850 to 1873 or thereabouts, it would be 
only natural to conclude that the effect of the now 
rapidly increasing conditions made annually to the 
world's product in the Transvaal, Australia, the United 
States, Russia and in the Klondike district would have 
a similar effect, provided they bore something like the 
same proportion to the already existing stock of gold 
as did those of California and Australia to the stock 
already on hand in 1850. Since 1871 the production of 
gold has been about 5,200,000 kilograms, or $3,455,- 
920,000, or will be by the end of the present year. Since 
1886 alone the product has been about 2,718,000 kilo- 
grams, or $1,806,383,000. The gold product from 
1886 to 1897 has been nearly 25 per cent of the total 
output of the gold mines of the world from 1493 to 
1885, and the total product of gold from 1871 to 1897 
has been approximately 60 per cent of the world's pro- 
duct of that metal from the discovery of America to 
1870. 

"Such an enormous production of gold since 1870 
would lead one to believe that there would necessarily 
be caused thereby a great rise in prices. But as a mat- 
ter of fact, the contrary has on the whole, been the case. 
A general decline of prices began in 1873, and notwith- 
standing the vast increase in the world's stock of gold 



248 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

just referred to, the decline still continues. Economists 
and statisticians of great merit believe that this general 
decline is- due to what they call the appreciation of gold, 
although how there can be an appreciation of gold, 
when the world's output of the metal since 1871 has 
been about 60 per cent of its total product from 1493 
to 1870 they do not explain. 

'This vast increase in the gold stock of the world 
has found expression in the lowness of the rate of dis- 
count, with the facility with which municipalities and 
states effect loans of great magnitude at a rate of inter- 
est lower than ever before in the history of the world, 
and in the vast accumulation of gold and silver bullion 
in the great banks of the world. The fact that prices 
have not risen as a consequence of the increase is un- 
doubted evidence that the causes of their decline have 
their source elsewhere than in the scarcity of gold or of 
money in general. For, as remarked above, there is 
now more gold available for monetary purposes than 
there was gold and silver before the decline of prices 
began. Not only this, but the substitutes for money 
with which every business man is familiar have vastly 
increased since 1873. With the development of credit 
that now obtains in the world the quantity of the media 
of circulation can have no controlling influence on the 
prices of commodities. 

"I know it is almost a despairing view to take that, 
notwithstanding the vast additions yearly making to 
the gold stock of the world, there is no immediate pros- 
pect of a general rise of prices from that cause; and yet, 
considering the simple fact that the addition to the 
world's gold stock since 1871 has been nearly 60 per 
cent of the world's output of this metal from the discov- 
ery of America up to 1870, and that the product since 
1886 up to the end of 1897 (an estimate of $240,000,- 
000 being made for that year) was nearly 25 per cent 
of the total product from 1493 to 1885, I can rea^h no 
other conclusion. The great addition to the world's 



GOLD OUTPUT OF THE WORLD. 249 

stock of gold since 1873 1S a demonstrated fact, but so 
also is the continued decline of prices. 

"The advocates of silver maintain that the decline is 
due to the demonetization of that metal and the con- 
sequent scarcity of money. Yet money was never more 
plentiful, rates of discount and interest never lower, ac- 
cumulation in the banks never greater. 

"These facts conclusively refute their contention. 

"May not the true cause be found in the stability of 
the value of gold — the most desirable quality in a 
money metal — and in the improvement in technical 
processes and the cheapening of transportation — an 
improvement and a cheapening still going on — as well 
as in the almost universal substitution of machine for 
human labor?" 



17 



250 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

HON. CLIFFORD SEFTON, CANADIAN MINISTER OF 
THE INTERIOR. 

Gold seekers in the Klondike country, and in the 
far north region generally, will appreciate an introduc-. 
tion to the Hon. Clifford Sefton, Canadian Minister of 
the Interior. The department of the Interior of the 
Dominion Government is charged with the respensi- 
bility of administering all mining laws and regulations, 
and has immediate jurisdiction of the mounted police 
which is charged with the maintenance of law and 
order in the mining camps of the northwest gold fields 
west to the 141st degree of longtitude. 

Mr. Sefton is a product of Manitoba where he settled 
with his parents in the "seventies." His father, Hon. 
J. W. Sefton has long Keen connected with the public 
life of the" Canadian Northwest, having served as a 
member of the Manitoba legislature fifteen years ago. 
The son, the present Minister of the Interior, succeeded 
his father in the legislature, and later was elected to 
the Dominion Parliament, being a strong opponent 
to ' 'separate schools" in Manitoba, an issue which has 
become almost world famous. Mr. Sefton, although a 
young man, not yet passed thirty-six years, has won 
distinction in the legal profession. He is an ardent 
and enthusiastic believer in a great future for the far 
northwest country, and his admirers in Canada pre- 
dict for his administration a rapid development of that 
region. He favors liberal government subsidies for 
the promotion of railway construction into the rich 
Peace River countrv, and other arable districts of the 



HON. CLIFFORD SEFTON. 2$I 

northwest, and will lend his best energies to promote 
the settlement and development of the whole north 
country. He favors a liberal mining policy, but is said 
to lean towards plans calculated to discriminate in 
favor of citizens of Canada and Great Britian as against 
gold seekers from other countries. 



252 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



CHAPTER XL. 

THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 

Northwest, or "Back-Door" lines of travel to the Klondike 
described in detail — Two and a half months from Ed- 
monton to Dawson City — A cheap, accessible route. 

And now we come to a description in detail of the 
most practical route to the Klondike, viz. : that by the 
Peace, Liard and Pelly rivers. That by the Mackenzie 
and Peel rivers, which is much longer, is available only 
when the water is open and is not likely to be exten- 
sively traveled. 

The route via the Peace and Liard rivers, which is 
a combination of two of the lines heretofore referred 
to in this volume, has the advantage of being the short- 
est and by all odds the cheapest and most accessible 
line of travel to the gold fields of the far north. In addi- 
tion to this it offers great facilities for taking horses 
and cattle through, as the country traversed abounds 
in good grasses, and although heavily timbered in 
many places, it is not rough in the sense of being moun- 
tainous. 

If gold seekers decide to take this short route, the 
starting point will be the city of Calgary, or Edmonton, 
which is 192 miles further north. Edmonton may be 
reached by rail from Chicago or any other railway 
point in the. United States. The Saskatchewan River 
is crossed at Edmonton. An excellent road runs from 
Calgary to Edmonton so that the traveler may chose 
between pack horses and the railway as to that distance 
of 192 miles. 

The reader is requested to consult the route map 
which accompanies this chapter closely, in order to get 
a better understanding of the description of the route. 
From Edmonton the objective point will be the Liard 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 253 

River, and there are several alternative routes, all 
heading northwest and converging on the Liard. 
When once the waters or the ice of the Liard are 
reached by either route the remainder of the journey 
is taken via Lake Frances, the portage over the great 
watershed to the Pelly River and thence down the 
Pelly and the Yukon, in boats on the water, or by 
sleds on the ice to Dawson City. 

We will therefore now describe in detail each of these 
alternative routes to the Liard, pointing out when pos- 
sible their respective merits and demerits, and then 
give our attention to that portion of the district from 
the Liard to the Yukon, which is common to them 
all. 

As stated the distance from Calgary to Edmonton 
is 192 miles, and may be traveled by rail or by means 
of horses. A party taking a large number of horses 
and cattle will find it advantageous to go over the 
highway. From Edmonton there is an excellent road 
for wagons or sleds, according to tha season, to Atha- 
baska landing, a distance of 90 miles. Over this sec- 
tion many thousands of tons of freight have been 
hauled in the past. At Athabaska landing the traveler 
may ascend the Athabaska River on the ice or in 
boats, according to the season to Lesser Slave River, 
and then up this river to Lesser Slave Lake, at the west 
end of which there is a Hudson's Bay post. From 
this post a cart or wagon road, 60 miles long, leads to 
the Peace River. The crossing is at the junction of 
the Peace and Smoky rivers. The total distance from 
Edmonton to this crossing is 260 miles. This route 
has been traveled for a century by traders and is well 
beaten. There are several Canadian parties now en 
.route to the Klondike over this line of travel. 

Horses or cattle taken in by this route, except during 
the ice season are taken on the south bank of the Atha- 
baska River from the landing to the mouth of Lesser 
Slave River, where they are swum across the stream 
and taken along the north side of Lesser Slave River 



254 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

and lake to the Hudson's Bay post at the head of the 
lake. Perhaps a better way, if horses are to be packed 
through during the open season, is to take the wagon 
road from Edmonton through St. Albert to the site of 
Fort Assiniboine, on the Athabaska, a distance of 85 
miles, then northwest to Lesser Slave Lake, 115 miles 
more, and thence by the cart road to the Peace River 
crossing. This route is now being improved by the 
Government of the Canadian northwest territories un- 
der Surveyor Chalmers. 

Peace River must be crossed at the Crossing, and 
then there is a good road or trail on the north bank of 
the river to Dunvegan at the mouth of the Pine River. 
This point is 100 miles from the Peace River crossing, 
and 25 miles from Fort St. John. 

The favored route is by Lake St. Ann to Fort St. 
John or Dunvegan. This is the line of travel to the 
Peace River covered by Henry McLeod, C. E., when 
making explorations for the Canadian Pacific railway. 
There is a direct wagon road from Edmonton to Lake 
St. Ann, thence by trail to the junction of the McLeod 
and Athabaska Rivers, where the latter has to be 
crossed on the ice or by boat. From the Athabaska the 
trail leads to Fort St. John by way of Smoky River 
and Grand Prairie. 

No difficulty will be experienced in crossing the Big 
or Little Smoky Rivers. There is a considerable 
amount of open country and muskegs are reputed to 
be conspicuous by their rarity, in addition to which 
good fishing can be obtained in the open season in any 
of the creeks and numerous small lakes along the trail. 
If the traveler wishes to strike the Peace River at Dun- 
vegan, rather than at Fort St. John, he will, instead of 
bearing to the west after crossing the Smoky River, 
take a trail which leads almost directly north. In the 
Edmonton Bulletin, of September, 1897, mention is 
made of the arrival in Edmonton of S. Cunningham, 
who has been mining for some time in this district 
northwest of Lake St. Ann. He gives the distance by 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 255 

days' travel with loaded pack horses to Dunvegan, Peace 
River, as follows: Lake St. Ann to Athabasca River 
at junction with McLeod, four days; Little Smoky, 
four days; Sturgeon Lake, three days; Big Smoky, 
three days; Spirit River, three days; Dunvegan, two 
days ; and says that this trail is the best one to Peace 
River. Mr. Cunningham adds that the Hudson's Bay 
Co., A. McCorrister and an Indian are establishing 
trading outposts at the crossing of the Athabasca. 

There is an old pack trail on the north side of the 
Peace between St. John and Dunvegan. This trail is 
far enough back from the river to avoid the numerous 
ravines which run into the Peace Valley. On the south 
side of the river a trail also exists between St. John and 
Dunvegan. On this south trail for a distance of about 
22 miles from St. John the country is much wooded, 
and for the remainder of the way open woods, prairie 
and fairly thick timber alternate. This trail lies about 
20 miles south of the river for the greater portion of the 
distance, and the whole of this southern district is well 
wooded right up to the spurs of the Rocky Mountains. 

"Although it was in October I passed over it, I wit- 
nessed no severe frosts, very little ice being visible any- 
where, and the flora gave no evidence of having been 
much injured by frost. In the prairies along the creeks 
the grasses and plants were of as luxurious growth as 
in places much farther south and east. The grass was 
generally long and meadowlike, but as we approached 
Peace River it became more like the true prairie grass 
until extensive areas of true prairie were passed over 
along the tributaries of the Peace River. For a dis- 
tance of six or seven miles back from the Peace River 
Valley there is much prairie and meadow land, with 
some woods and swamps scattered over it. The soil is 
an excellent black clay loam, as rich as I ever saw, and 
the growth of hay and grass bears testimony to this 
fact." 

Dominion Land Surveyor Ogilvie, who traveled 
over the upper Peace River district in 1891, says: 



256 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

"At Fort St. John the Hudson's Bay Co. raise pota- 
toes and garden produce with success, and the barley 
and oats always ripen. They also have several bands of 
horses in the vicinity. These animals live on the prai- 
rie on the north side of the river winter and summer, 
and very seldom are there any losses, except by wolves. 
The fact that horses can safely winter out here speaks 
well for the future of the country. St. John is visited 
frequently during the winter months by the so-called 
chinook winds, which often sweep away the snow com- 
pletely." 

At Dunvegan the Hudson's Bay Co. has grown 
wheat, barley, oats, and garden produce generally for 
many years with great success. Mr. Ogilvie remarks 
that when he was there in 1883-84 he saw grain and 
vegetables fully equal in quality and quantity to any he 
has ever seen, any where, the garden vegetables being 
especially fine. The Hudson's Bay Co., the Roman 
Catholic Mission and the Indians have many horses, 
which always winter out. The woods afford them shel- 
ter and on the prairies the richest grasses grow. There 
are also large areas where excellent hay grows. A con- 
cluding quotation from Mr. Ogilvie's report must be 
made, as it bears pertinently on the characteristics of 
the Peace River district: "Were it not for the difficulty 
of getting into and out of the country stock raising 
might be profitably engaged in. Hay is abundant and 
of good quality nearly everywhere, and in summer the 
grazing is excellent. Notwithstanding the latitude and 
altitude, cattle subsist with moderate help from the first 
of May till the middle or end of December; the rest of 
the year they have to be sheltered and fed. The Hud- 
son's Bay Co. has a ranch on Spirit River, south of the 
Peace about 20 miles, and on the trail between Dunve- 
gan and Grand Prairie. This was started a few years 
ago, and some fine stock was put on it. What the re- 
sult of the experiment may be remains to be seen, but 
they have been kept at all the posts for many years, 
oxen being largely used in freighting." 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 257 

In essaying to traverse the 350 miles of country 
which separate the Peace and Liard Rivers, the travel- 
er has a choice of routes, though the information at his 
disposal is not of such a definite. or particular nature as 
that concerning the other portions of the overland 
route. In selecting his course he will have, in great 
measure, to use his own judgment, at the same time 
bearing in mind that all the information contained in 
the government publications and that derived from the 
Hudson's Bay officials and Indians concur in the fact 
that this tract of country is passable without difficulty 
or danger, and that the only obstruction to be met with 
is the dense growth of timber, through which a trail 
may in occasional places have to be cut for a short dis- 
tance. The Indians have trails through this section for 
hunting purposes. 

The reader, on referring to the map, will notice that 
the two branches of the Nelson River take their rise 
in the divide, and, uniting some distance above Fort 
Nelson, run almost north to the Liard. Mr. W. Ogil- 
vie, journeying south from the Liard in 1891, reached 
Fort St. John by traveling in a course up the west 
branch of the Nelson and thence packing overland. 
On his way he picked up a considerable amount of in- 
formation as to the country, although, owing to the 
time of year and the delays he was subjected to, he had 
no opportunity of investigating for himself. 

The most direct route to the head waters of the Nel- 
son would be to take the trail running between Dun- 
vegan and Fort St. John till it crossed the Pine River, 
and follow up Pine River and continue in a northwest- 
erly direction to the forks of the Nelson River, being a 
distance of 140 miles from the mouth of the Pine. The 
head waters of the east branch of the Nelson, which 
Mr. Ogilvie calls the Nelson River proper, can be 
reached from St. John by a shorter way. A well known 
Indian once made a trip to Peace River from the head 
of canoe navigation on the Nelson, "and described his 
route as being southerly for one day to a lake of con- 



258 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

siderable size, thence from the lake to Peace River 
three days on foot, which probably would make from 
50 to 70 miles from the head of this stream to Peace 
River. Between the lake and Peace River he crossed 
a ridge of hills, which he designated mountains, but 
they were all heavily timbered." The Edmonton Bul- 
letin remarks, apropos of this last, that it would indi- 
cate that the greater part of the distance was not heav- 
ily timbered, and therefore passable for pack horses. 
A single belt of timber could very easily be cut through. 

Another route which, from all reports, appears to be 
the most advantageous, is as follows : Proceeding up 
the Peace River from Fort St. John, Half-way River 
is reached, which has its source a little south of the 
head waters of the west fork of the Nelson, and runs 
into the Peace 40 miles above Fort St. John. There is 
a good horse trail up Half-way River, leading to the 
west fork of Nelson River, a distance of 100 miles. 
This trail has been much used by the Indians, and, in- 
deed, the whole of the country around the Half-way 
River, from Ogilvie's description, would appear to be 
frequently traversed by them. Ogilvie did not pass over 
this trail, as he cut a path of his own to Fort St. John, 
but the trail, nevertheless, exists, and has been well 
used and therefore there can be no difficulty in packing 
supplies over. 

Mr. Ogilvie, in speaking of the general characteris- 
tics of the ground between the Nelson and Peace Riv- 
ers, says that the timber is generally scrub, averaging 
two inches in thickness and eight to ten feet in height. 
"It may be taken," says the Edmonton Bulletin, "as 
established beyond question that an open pack trail ex- 
ists from Edmonton to boat navigation on the west 
branch of the Nelson by way of St. John and Half-way 
River, the total distance being over 500 miles." The 
Indians use the Half-way and Nelson Rivers as a canoe 
route, there being a portage of 25 miles between the 
two at a point higher up than the horse trail. Mr. 
Frank Oliver, M. P., rnentions that a party of miners 






THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 259 

took this canoe route from Peace River to the Liard 
about 1874. They went up Half-way River in the fall, 
crossed the portage in the winter and went down the 
Nelson in the spring. 

Having Reached the head waters of either the west or 
the east fork of the Nelson, there is no difficulty in de- 
scending to Fort Nelson and the Liard River. 

The following description of the Nelson, or East 
Branch River, as it is locally known, taken from Ogil- 
vie's report, will suffice to give an idea of the nature of 
the road: The river, for some way from its junction 
with the Liard, is from 200 to 400 yards wide, and capa- 
ble of being navigated by stern wheel steamers as far 
up as Fort Nelson, 1 10 miles. This post is a Hudson's 
Bay Co. station, and as it is off the main line of travel, 
the only white people seen at it are those in charge of 
the company's business and a missionary. The In- 
dians in the vicinity have seen very little of white men 
or civilized life. They have retained more of their ori- 
ginal manners and habits than Indians generally do, 
and, judging from Ogilvie's experience, the less the 
traveler depends on them the better it will be for him. 
Above Fort Nelson the river continues to afford good 
navigation for 91 miles to where the forks are situate. 
The east fork is the smaller and is known as the Nelson 
River; the west one Ogilvie calls the Sicannie Chief 
River. 

The east fork is very shallow, except in spring; so 
much so that it is only in spring there is enough water 
to run a canoe down. At the head it is wide and full of 
gravel bars, which in summer time absorb all the water. 
From the head of canoe navigation on this stream 
down to Fort Nelson takes about three or four days in 
high water, or say 150 to 180 miles. 

The west branch, or Sicannie Chief River, was trav- 
ersed by Ogilvie in his journey from Ft. Nelson to 
Ft. St. John in 1891, and from his report it fs beyond 
question that the stream can be descended by canoe 
with facility. Ogilvie himself ascended the river in 



260 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

low water, and though he made somewhat slow time, 
he had no portages to make. We have mentioned, 
above, that the Indians use this west branch as a canoe 
route in conjunction with Half-way River. 

Ogilvie observes with reference to the Nelson: "A 
marked peculiarity with reference to this stream is the 
nature of the bars in it. They consist principally of 
sand, and many of them are continually shifting their 
position. By putting a stick down to the bottom in 
very many places along the river the bottom can be 
felt in violent agitation, the sand rolling along with 
great force and lodging in the deep places, only to be 
dislodged again in time. Many of the bars are very 
treacherous, presenting a solid appearance which is far 
from real ; on top of them there is a thin crust of gravel, 
which will not support a man, and through which he 
will sink in quicksand two or three feet. To cross one 
of these is quite an undertaking, as it is exceedingly 
fatiguing, if not dangerous. Much of the bottom of the 
river is in the same condition." 

It will be seen from these observations that crossing 
the ice and snow in the early spring when the snow has 
mostly disappeared and the ice yet remains will prove 
the more practicable mode of travel for this section of 
the route. 

The traveler now ascends the Liard River, which at 
this point and for some distance is bordered with wide 
alluvial flats, covered with tall, straight cottonwood 
and large spruce and canoe birch. The river itself is 
wide and filled with sandbars and wooded islands. The 
valley is wide and shallow and lined with gently slop- 
ing spruce clad banks. R. G. McConnell adds: "On 
some of the flats the Indians have built houses, and 
fenced in small plots for farming purposes, for which 
the greater part of this section of the district seems well 
adapted. We passed (July, 1887) one small Indian 
farm about 13 miles below the mouth of the Nelson 
and another one at the mouth of Fishing Creek, a few 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 261 

miles above Fort Liard, while others were noticed in 
the lower part of the river." 

Proceeding up the Liard, the river valley for some 
miles is low and the hill sides are covered with forests, 
while the river itself spreads out and flows for some 
miles in a multitude of channels through a bewilder- 
ing maze of islands. The journey as far as Hell Gate 
Canyon — 40 miles from the mouth of the Nelson — is 
easy and after 10 miles have been traversed, the valley 
becomes narrow with steep sides rising up in places to 
a height of fully a thousand feet. The bottoms here 
are usually small and are chiefly wooded by members 
of the poplar family. In this reach the river has a 
steady current of about four and a half miles an hour, 
and varies in width from 500 yards to over a mile. In 
the wide portions the river is usually divided into sev- 
eral channels by islands and bars. Shortly before Hell 
Gate Canyon there is a canyon-like reach of the river 
about a mile in length. The stream here is narrowed 
down to about 150 yards in width and flows easily be- 
tween vertical banks three hundred feet high. 

Hell Gate Canyon is so called because it is the en- 
trance to a wild portion of the river, where the most 
serious obstructions are met with. The voyageur will 
experience no trouble in passing Hell Gate, or the three 
miles of rather swift water which have next to be trav- 
ersed, but above this the river is closely canyoned and 
riffles are met with all the way. Only some of these 
are dangerous, but the banks are steep, and the impos- 
sibility of getting down to the bottom of the valley 
compelled Mr. McConnell's party, who were coming 
down stream, to make a portage of four miles. On 
getting round this stretch of canyons a long riffle is 
met, and then the "Rapid of the Drowned" is reached. 
"Here one of the most dangerous spots on the river 
is formed by the water plunging, with its whole force, 
over a ledge of rock which curves outwards and down- 
wards from the left-hand bank into a boiling chaudiere 
below. The name of the rapid originated from the 



262 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

drowning at this point of a Hudson Bay clerk named 
Brown, and a boat load of voyageurs. As the story 
goes, Brown, disregarding the advice of his steersman, 
insisted on running close to the northern bank, and 
the canoe plunging into the hole mentioned above 
was drawn under. We passed the rapid by letting our 
boat down cautiously with a rope to the chaudiere and 
then making a short portage. With a proper boat, 
however, no difficulty would be experienced in crossing 
the river above the rapid and running down close to 
the right bank." 

For twelve miles above the Rapid of the Drowned 
the river is wide and shallow and filled with gravel 
bars, but navigation is easy. Then another narrow 
pass is entered where the current is swift, and riffle 
succeeds riffle till the Devil's portage is reached. Mr. 
McConnell's party had to make several short portages, 
but were able to use their canoe most of the way. This 
portion of the Liard between Devil's portage and Hell- 
gate, a distance of nearly 40 miles, is called the Grand 
Canyon,' but "is more correctly a succession of short 
canyons, with expanded basins between filled with ed- 
dying currents. In low water the whole of this reach 
can be easily run in almost any kind of a boat, but in 
the season of high floods, such as it was when we 
passed through, the water forcing its way through the 
throat-like contractions, is thrown into a commotion 
too violent for any but the staunchest boat to stand." 

Again the reader will observe that the ice season is 
by all odds the proper one for travel over this part of 
the journey to the Klondike. 

Above the Grand Canyon the Liard makes a great 
bend to the northeast, all around which is a succession 
of rapids and canyons; and a large fall is reported in 
the elbow of the bend. The banks of the river are 
formed of almost vertical cliffs, and a portage of four 
miles has to be made across the bend on the left-hand 
bank of the river as you ascend. This portage passes 
over a ridge fully 1,000 feet high and the slopes are 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 263 

steep. In 1871 Messrs. McCullough and Thibert 
cleared a trail across for the purpose of hauling their 
boat over, and in 1887 R. G. McConnell followed their 
trail easily on the upper part of the portage, but the 
eastern portion had become gradually overgrown with 
brush wood, and he had to cut out a new path for him- 
self. Mr. McConnell spent six days on the portage; 
but most of this time was employed in framing a boat 
and in crossing his outfit, which was comparatively 
heavy, in addition to which he had to cut a trail for 
some distance. Today the portage should not take 
more than two days at the outside. 

Mr. McConnell observes that the country around the 
Devil's portage and Fort Halkett is probably the best 
moose country in North America. His party saw sev- 
eral, and everywhere fresh tracks in abundance were 
observed. Beaver are also abundant, and grizzly bear 
are said to be fairly common. 

Beyond the portage the Liard has an average width 
of 400 yards, and a steady current of about four miles 
and a half an hour. It is bordered in places by long 
gravel and sand beaches, and encloses occasionally 
wooded islands. Various small streams come in, and 
70 miles above the Nelson, at the confluence of the 
Smith and Liard, is the site of Fort Halkett, a Hud- 
son's Bay trading post, which has been abandoned 
since 1865. Between Fort Halkett and Portage Brule 
the river is wide and filled with low islands and bars, 
some of which are auriferous. The river valley is low, 
lined with rows of terraces rising up to a height of sev- 
eral hundred feet, and clothed in unwooded portions by 
as luxuriant a growth of grasses and vetches as I have 
ever seen in any part of the country. This part of the 
country, judging from the luxuriance of the vegetation 
and the character of the soil, seems well adapted for 
agricultural pursuits. 

The rapids at Portage Brule are about two miles 
long, but McConnell says that they are not very formid- 
able. "The portage itself is nearly two miles long and 



264 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

leads across a nearly level, well-wooded flat, which at 
the upper end of the portage is only elevated a few 
feet above the surface of the river, but at the lower end 
is terminated by a sharp descent of over 200 feet. A 
good track was cut across when mining was being 
prosecuted on the Liard, and a windlass built at the 
lower end for the purpose of hoisting boats up the steep 
bank, both of which are still (i. e. 1887) in good condi- 
tion." 

Four miles above Portage Brule the river is again 
broken by several small but strong riffles, which can be 
avoided by making portages a few yards in length. 
Whirlpool Canyon, the first rapid reached, can be 
passed in safety by keeping to the right bank, says Mc- 
Connell. Mountain Portage rapids, a little above Rab- 
bit River, can be traversed by taking a small channel 
on the left-hand side of the island; the rapid itself, how- 
ever, is one of the worst on the river. Cranberry rapid, 
some distance beyond Mountain portage, is also bad 
and necessitates a half mile portage along the right 
bank. From here to Porcupine Bar navigation is safe, 
and except for one small canyon the valley is wide 
and bottomed by long, narrow, well-wooded flats. 
Abandoned miners' camps are passed all the way, and 
the country is everywhere densely wooded, the prin- 
cipal trees being the white spruce, larch, birch and 
black pine. The spruce, which obtains here a diameter 
of 15 to 20 inches, is by far the most abundant and val- 
uable. The river is here about 300 yards in width. 

Between Porcupine Bar and the mouth of the Dease 
River there occurs but one serious rapid — the Little 
Canyon. It is "about half a mile long and in its nar- 
rowest place about 200 feet wide. It is easily navig- 
able in low water, but is dangerous for small boats dur- 
ing floods, as the channel is very crooked, and the cur- 
rent, striking with great violence against the right- 
hand bank, is thrown forcibly back, with the produc- 
tion of a number of breakers running nearly length- 
wise with the direction of the channel, and large 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 265 

enough to swamp any ordinary river boat which is 
drawn among them. A number of Chinamen were 
drowned at this point some years ago. This canyon 
can be run with safety by entering it nearly in the mid- 
dle of the stream, which is as close to the left-hand 
bank as the lines of reefs and isolated rocks running 
out from that side will allow, and once past there mak- 
ing all haste to the left so as to clear the breakers be- 
low." In ascending the Liard the rapid can be avoided 
by a portage of about half a mile. 

Dease river enters the Liard on the south, 160 miles 
above the mouth of the Nelson. The Liard, below the 
Dease, has a general width of from 250 to 400 yards, 
but widens out in places to over half a mile. It sepa- 
rates in places into a number of channels, enclosing 
low alluvial islands, usually well wooded. Its valley is 
from two to three miles wide, and is shallow, with roll- 
ing banks sloping easily up to the general level. The 
country is everywhere well wooded, but the trees are 
usually small, seldom exceeding a foot in diameter. 
Black pine, white spruce, poplar, and occasionally birch 
are seen. 

Mr. McConnell ? in describing the Indians he met 
with at the mouth of the Dease, says that they seldom 
ascend the Liard with canoes, as they prefer carrying 
their outfits along the shore, the character of the river 
valley permitting them to do this with greater facility 
than tracking a canoe against the current. 

The Liard, just above the mouth of the Dease, is 840 
feet in width, with a maximum velocity of 4.54 miles 
per hour, according to Dr. Dawson. Six miles above 
the mouth of the Dease the entrance to the Lower can- 
yon is reached. The canyon is three miles in length 
and at high water it is said to be necessary to portage 
the whole of this distance, but Dr. Dawson's party 
lightened their boats and made four small portages 
over rocky points where the current*was dangerously 
swift. Above the Lower canyon the river continues 
swift, the current averaging about four miles an hour 

18 



266 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

and much exceeding this rate in many places. It is 
wide and shallow, and in places becomes a complete 
maze of islands and gravelly half-submerged bars. 
The river valley averages about two miles in width, 
and the higher ground is generally wooded with spruce, 
while the black pine is abundant on dry terraces, and 
groves of cottonwood of medium size often occur on 
the flats. However, little of this timber is of useful size 
or quality. Dr. Dawson remarks that when he 
traversed this section of the country in June, 1887, 
there were many wild flowers in evidence and the wild 
roses were rapidly coming into flower. 

About midway between the Dease and Frances, a 
small stream enters the Liard from the southwest, and 
a few miles above on the opposite side of the river a 
small lake, reputed to be well stocked with fish, is re- 
ported. From the mouth of Dease River to the con- 
fluence of the Frances, the general bearing of the 
Liard is nearly due northwest, the distance following 
the course of the river being 45 miles. 

The country is a wide, rolling plateau, with an av- 
erage elevation of about 500 feet above the river. This 
plateau is everywhere wooded, except where inter- 
sected by grassy or mossy swamps of small area. 

The Edmonton Bulletin thus sums up the route thus 
far: "Going carefully over all the information obtain- 
able as to this part of the route, which includes the 
crossing of the Rocky mountains, the only possible 
obstacle to pack and cattle travel at present would be 
the timber, which might require to be cut through 
in places. On the other hand, unless the conditions 
are very different from what they are elsewhere in the 
North West, the timber would not form a very serious 
objection. Feed for animals must certainly exist all 
along, which is the main consideration, and the cli- 
mate certainly cannot be severe." 

Leaving the Liard the route lies up the Frances 
River, which, near its junction with the Liard, has an 
average width of 600 feet. For the first few miles 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 267 

above its mouth the Frances is extremely tortuous, 
and then, 22 miles from the Liard, the Middle canyon 
is reached. This canyon is about three miles in length 
and the river is hemmed in by broken, rocky cliffs of 
200 to 300 feet in height for the greater portion of the 
distance. The Dawson party took their boats up along 
the southeast bank, making four short portages of part 
of their outfit, and two of both boats and load across 
narrow rocky points. One portage of greater length, 
says Dr. Dawson, on the opposite bank, would over- 
come all the really bad water, but the banks on that 
side are rougher, and the whole force of the current sets 
against the cliff in one place in a dangerous manner. 

Above the Middle canyon the river is, in the main, 
bordered by quite low land on both sides for about 12 
miles. The river itself is wide and deep, with a rather 
slack current. Proceeding further, the current be- 
comes swifter and several streams come down from the 
small lakes, which the Indians say are to be found at 
some distance from the river. Numerous islands are 
met with, but there is no difficulty until the Upper can- 
yon is reached, 39 miles from the Liard. This canyon 
is a mile and a quarter long and is occupied by a series 
of rapids, which are rocky and rather strong and have 
a total fall of about 30 feet. The banks rise steeply 
from the river to heights of 100 to 200 feet, though the 
rocky cliffs along the water are of inconsiderable 
height, scarcely anywhere exceeding 50 feet. This is 
the last serious impediment to the navigation of the 
river, and Dawson's party found it necessary to make 
several short portages, but with a large boat and at a 
good stage of the river it is possible, says Dr. Dawson, 
that one portage of about 1,000 feet in length, on the 
south bank, would overcome all the dangerous water, 
while the boat might be tracked up light. 

From the Upper canyon to Frances Lake, a distance 
of 21 1-2 miles in a straight line, the river maintains a 
northerly direction. It is deep, with a moderate cur- 
rent for about eight miles to Moose Island, above 



268 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

which the current is again swift, averaging from four 
and a half to five miles an hour. It again becomes 
slack for a short distance below the lake. Some por- 
tions of this part of the river are much broken up by 
islands and gravel bars. The valley is partly occupied 
by terrace flats and partly of wooded hills. 

Frances Lake is 2,577 ^ eet above the sea and consists, 
really, of a group of lakes connected by narrow chan- 
nels. Lake trout, white fish, pike and suckers are found 
in abundance in its waters. All the lower country 
around the lake is well wooded, white spruce, black 
spruce, larch, birch and (on the flats) cottonwood and 
black pine being all found. Dr. Dawson saw in July 
many thickets of wild roses in full bloom. These indi- 
cations show that the climate is moist but not severe. 
Dr. Dawson remarks that the snowfall cannot be great, 
nor is there any indication that the total annual pre- 
cipitation is very considerable. 

"In general appearance the rocks of Frances Lake 
closely resemble those from which the rich placer gold 
deposits of Dease Lake are derived. * * * Sev- 
eral colors to the pan were obtained from surface gravel 
at the mouth of Finlayson River, which struck me as 
specially promising in aspect, and there seems no 
reason why some of the streams flowing across the 
schistose rocks into the lake or in its vicinity should 
not prove to be richly auriferous. This entire district 
well deserves careful prospecting. After my return to 
the coast in the autumn, I ascertained from Charles 
Monroe that he and some other miners had actually 
done some prospecting in the vicinity of the lake at the 
time when the Cassiar mines were yielding largely, and 
the more enterprising men were scouring the country 
in search of new fields. On comparing notes we found 
that he had worked for a short time at the mouth of 
the Finlayson, where he found the gravel to pay at 
the rate of from $8 to $9 a day." Geological Survey 
of Canada, Annual Report, 1887-8, vol. iii., pt. 1, page 
113. (Dawson.) 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 269 

The region between Frances Lake and Pelly River 
is somewhat mountainous, but the mountains at no 
point attain any very high altitude. The country is 
traversed by wide wooded valleys, of which that occu- 
pied by the Finlayson River is the principal. The cli- 
mate becomes less moist as Frances Lake is left be- 
hind. "Grassy swamps are found in a number of 
places, and a good growth of grass is also met with, 
where areas have been denuded of forest by successive 
fires, so that should it ever become desirable to use 
horses on this portage, they might be maintained with- 
out difficulty." 

Professor Dawson crossed this divide between the 
Frances and Pelly Rivers by ascending Finlayson 
River. He says that the lower part of the Finlayson 
for about four miles, near its mouth, forms a series of 
rapids and small cascades in a narrow rocky gorge and 
is utterly impassable. His party found their way along 
the valley with heavy packs ; the canoe was brought up 
the stream by two Indians. Above the rapids the river 
is shallow, but further on it becomes a narrow and deep 
stream. Twenty-two miles from Lake Frances it di- 
vides into two branches, the southern of which comes 
from Finlayson Lake. 

Finlayson Lake, about nine and a half miles long, 
3,105 feet above sea level, occupies the summit of the 
water-shed between the Mackenzie and the Yukon. It 
is well stocked with white fish and lake trout. The im- 
mediate shores of the lake are generally quite low and 
often swampy, and the country is covered with small, 
poor timber, much of which has been killed by fire. 

The distance from the head of the lake to the nearest 
point on the Pelly River, in a straight line, is about 
fifteen miles, but tKe route which the contour of the 
land compels the traveler to take is nearer twenty 
miles. White and black spruce are found, and the veg- 
etation in the vicinity of the Pelly is abundant. The 
soil of the river terraces is a fine silty material, which, 



270 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

judging from the luxuriance of plant growth, must be 
very rich. 

Professor Dawson took ten days to travel from Lake 
Frances to Pelly River, but he observes that if he had 
had Indian guides he would in all probability have 
shortened the land carriage and possibly have found a 
traveled Indian trail. The Hudson's Bay Company, 
years ago, used a trail over the divide, but beyond two 
abandoned caches, no trace of it was discovered by 
the Dawson party. 

At the point where the Pelly River is reached from 
Lake Frances it is 326 feet wide, with a current slightly 
exceeding two miles and a half an hour, and a depth of 
seven feet. When Professor Dawson took his observa- 
tions, however, the river was, he says, probably below 
its mean stage. The old Hudson's Bay post, Pelly 
Banks, was situated atj:his point, but the buildings 
have disappeared. For thirty-three miles, down to 
where Hoole River joins the Pelly, the navigation is 
unobstructed and the current is moderate. The banks 
are muddy, and the south bank in particular is densely 
wooded, and, where shady and damp, the growth of 
timber is small and scrubby, with much black spruce. 

"Just below the mouth of Hoole River is a rapid 
about 600 feet long with a total fall estimated at about 
ten feet. There is an easy portage on the right or north 
bank, but a fair-sized boat might run through without 
danger at most stages of the water." From this rapid 
to Hoole canyon, a distance of ten miles, the water is 
swift. At Hoole canyon the most formidable rapid oc- 
curs. The river makes a knee-like bend to the north- 
eastward and is constricted between rocky banks and 
cliffs about a hundred feet in height. These render it 
impracticable to use the line, and the water is very 
rough and dangerous. Professor Dawson found it 
necessary to carry all his effects and his canoe to the 
lower end of the canyon. The distance by the river 
is about three-quarters of a mile, and the portage is half 
a mile, the highest point being one hundred feet above 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 2/1 

the riv®r. The portage is on the south side of the river, 
and Professor Dawson remarks that he found traces 
on it of skids which had been laid by the Hudson's Bay 
Company many years ago, but no sign of its having 
been employed by the Indians, who in all this district 
generally travel by land, making rafts when they are 
obliged to cross any of the larger rivers. 

Proceeding down the Pelly, which is swift in all this 
part of its course, Ross River is passed, twenty-three 
miles from the Hoole canyon, and then there follows a 
stretch of good water for eighty-two miles to where the 
Glenlyon River joins the Pelly. All the way from the 
Ross to the Glenlyon, the Pelly is closely bordered on 
the north by hills of considerable height and densely 
wooded. On the south the mountains are distant some 
six miles from the river, the intervening country being 
occupied by lower wooded hills and broken country. 
For rather more than half the distance between the 
Ross and Glenlyon the Pelly continues to be pretty 
swift and is much divided among islands and gravel 
bars ; the remaining part is comparatively tranquil, till 
the Glenlyon is reached. Cottonwood, aspen, alder, 
spruce and willows are the prevailing trees on the river 
flats ; and on higher ground the birch is abundant and 
the black pine is also found. 

In the immediate vicinity of the mouth of the Glen- 
lyon River are two rapids. The first is about two miles 
above the Glenlyon. It is wide and rather shallow with 
some rocky impediments. Professor Dawson says it 
is easily run with a canoe, but, at low stages of. the 
river, doubtfully passable for a steamer, unless of light 
draft. The second rapid is immediately below the junc- 
tion of the Glenlyon and Pelly. Here the current 
strikes full on the face of a rocky bank on the right of 
the river, and forms a heavy confused wash in conse- 
quence, but is otherwise unimpeded and deep. 

From the Glenlyon River to the junction of the Pelly 
and Macmillan is ninety-one miles following the course 
of the river. Several small creeks occur, but no 



2^2 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

streams of any size. For the first twenty miles of this 
distance the Pelly is more than usually free from abrupt 
bends, and few islands are met with. There are exten- 
sive grassy slopes on the hills which border the north 
bank. A number of small riffles are met, but none are 
of a character to offer impediment to navigation, and 
the current averages about three miles an hour. The 
Macmillan River is almost as large as the Pelly, meas- 
uring 455 feet in width just above its mouth, but it has 
never been explored. Two prospectors told Professor 
Dawson that they had ascended the Macmillan for sev- 
eral days and that there was a large area of low land 
with good soil in the river basin, but that mining pros- 
pects were not encouraging. 

From the mouth of the Macmillan to the confluence 
of the Pelly and Lewis Rivers, measured along the 
course of the stream, is seventy-four miles and the 
stream is exceedingly tortuous. Five and a half miles 
below the Macmillan the Pelly is 754 feet in width, with 
a current of 2.3 miles per hour. Thirteen miles from 
the Macmillan, Granite canyon is reached. The can- 
yon is about four miles in length with steep, rocky 
banks 200 to 250 feet in height. In the canyon are sev- 
eral little rapids, but the water is deep, and with the 
exception of some isolated rocks, the navigation would 
be quite safe for steamers even at a low stage of water. 
As the water is much confined, Professor Dawson 
opines that pretty rough water may be found here dur- 
ing floods. After passing the ridge which is cut 
through by Granite Canyon, the country on both sides 
of the river for about fifteen miles is quite low. Wide 
terraces run back from the river, and these are often 
highly wooded and are clothed with a good growth of 
grass. The soil is good. The remaining distance to 
the mouth of the Lewis, the river is more closely bor- 
dered by low hills, the southern slopes of which are 
generally open and grassy, and would afford excellent 
pasturaee. The northern exoosures are pretty thickly 
wooded. 



THE PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 273 

The country about the confluence of the Lewis and 
Pelly is, generally speaking, low, with extensive ter- 
race flats. The Lewis itself is considerably larger than 
the Pelly and swifter, and the united rivers measure 
about a quarter of a mile in width, just below the junc- 
tion. 

The ruins of Fort Selkirk, formerly a post of the 
Hudson's Bay Co., stand on the south side at a short 
distance from the river. It was at one time the most 
important post of the H. B. C. to the west of the Rocky 
Mountains in the far north, and with the exception of 
Fort Yukon, it was the most western permanent post 
ever maintained by the company. 

The total length of the Pelly from the point where 
it is reached at the west end of the Lake Frances por- 
tage to its confluence with the Lewis is 320 miles. On 
the subject of the navigability the following remarks by 
Professor Dawson are entitled to the greatest weight: 
"With the exception of Granite Canyon, where warp- 
ing might have to be resorted to at one place, the river 
would be easily navigable for stern-wheel steamers as 
far up as the mouth of the Macmillan, and the latter 
stream is also navigable for a considerable, though un- 
known distance. Above the Macmillan, 1 believe, no 
serious difficulty would be met with in taking a small 
stern-wheel steamer of good power up to the mouth of 
Ross River, and possibly as far as the foot of Hoole 
Canyon. A line might have to be carried ashore at a 
few of the stronger rapids, but the chief difficulty to be 
encountered would be from shoal water at low stages. 
Where the river is widely spread and swift, a depth of 
three feet could scarcely be found across some of the 
gravelly bars. * * * Hoole Canyon is, of course, 
quite impassable for a steamer of any kind, and -the 
rapid met with seventeen miles east of it, at the mouth 
of Hoole River, might prove to be a difficult one to 
surmount by warping, its fall being estimated at about 
eight feet. Above this point the river is again, how- 
ever, an easily navigable one for small steamers to the 

18 



274 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

furthest point seen by us, and possibly as far as the 
lakes." 

Professor Dawson further reports that small colors 
of gold may be found in almost any suitable locality 
along the river, and heavy colors in considerable num- 
bers were found by him as far up as the mouth of Hoole 
River. The head waters of the Macmillan and Ross 
and those of the Pelly itself yet remain unprospected, 
as well as the very numerous tributary streams of these 
rivers. 

Such is the shortest and most convenient route to 
the gold fields of the far north. The whole distance 
from Edmonton to Dawson City may be covered easily 
in two or three months, and by parties going light, in 
less than two months. The best time to leave Edmon- 
ton is early in March, so as to reach the foot of the 
Rockies just as the snow disappears and the ice is yet 
available in the river bottoms. This will undoubtedly 
become the most favored route to the Klondike. 



APPENDIX. 275 



APPENDIX I. 

ROUTES AND DISTANCES. 

A summary of routes and distances to the gold fields 
on both the eastern and western slopes of the Rockies 
of the far north will prove of value : 

NORTHWESTERN ROUTE. 

MILES. 

Chicago to Winnipeg (Railway) 1,000 

Winnipeg to Edmonton (Railway) 1,100 

Edmonton to gold fields head of Peace River 

(Overland) 750 

Peace River gold fields to the Klondike 800 

CHILKOOT ROUTE. 

Seattle to Dyea 884 

Dyea to foot of Canyon 7 

Canyon to Sheep Camp 5 

Sheep Camp to Summit. 3 

Summit to Lake Lindeman 9 

Lake Lindeman (length) 6 

Portage to Lake Bennett 1 

Lake Bennett (length) 25 

Cariboo Crossing to Lake Tagish 2 

WHITE PASS ROUTE. 

Seattle to Skaguay 884 

Dyea to Tako Arm 35 

Tako Arm to Lake Tagish 20 

Tagish Lake (length) 16 

River to Lake Marsh 5 



276 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

MILES. 

Lake Marsh (length) 20 

Head of Lake Marsh to Miles Canyon 23 

Miles Canyon to White Horse Rapids 2\ 

White Horse Rapids J 

Foot of White Horse Rapids to Tahkeena 

River 13 

Tahkeena River to Lake Le Barge 11J 

Lake Le Barge (length) 31 

Lake Le Barge to Hootalinqua River 2j\ 

Hootalinqua River to Big Salmon River 31 

Big Salmon River to Little Salmon River 34 

Little Salmon River to Five Fingers 53 

Five Fingers to Pelly River 55 

Pelly River to White River 9 

White River to Stewart River 9 

Stewart River to Sixty-Mile River 21 

Sixty-Mile River to Dawson City 49 

Dawson City to Forty-Mile . 52 

Forty-Mile to Fort Cudahy | 

Fort Cudahy to Circle City . 240 

Total Dyea to Circle City via Chilkoot Pass . 762 

Total Skaguay to Circle City via White Pass. 759 

VIA ST. MICHAEL'S AND YUKON RIVER. 

Seattle to St. Michael's 3,000 

St. Michael's to Kutlik 100 

Kutlik to Andreafski 125 

Andreafski to Holy Cross 145 

Holy Cross to Koserefsky 5 

Koserefsky to Anvik 75 

Anvik to Nulato 225 

Nulato to Narikatat 145 

Narikatat to Janana 80 

Janana to Fort Yukon 45° 

Fort Yukon to Circle City 80 

Circle City to Forty Mile 240 

Fortv Mile to Dawson Citv 5 2 



APPENDIX. 2.77 

VIA TAIYA PASS. 

MILES. 

Victoria to Taiya 1,000 

Taiya to Cudahy • 650 

VIA STIKINE RIVER. 

Victoria to Wrangel 750 

Wrangel to Telegraph Creek 150 

Telegraph Creek to Teslin Lake 150 

Teslin Lake to Cudahy 650 

DISTANCES FROM HEAD OF TAIYA INLET. 

Head of canoe navigation, Taiya River ...... 5.90 

Forks of Taiya River 8.38 

Summit of Taiya Pass 14-76 

Landing at Lake Lindeman 23.06 

Foot of Lake Lindeman 27.49 

Head of Lake Bennett . . . 28.09 

Boundary Line B. C. and N. W. T. (Lat. 60) . . 38.09 

Foot of Lake Bennett 53-85 

Foot of Cariboo Crossing (Lake Nares) 56.44 

Foot of Tagish Lake 73- 2 5 

Head of Marsh Lake 4 78.15 

Foot of Marsh Lake 97- 21 

Head of Canyon 122.94 

Foot of Canyon 123.56 

Head of White Horse Rapids 124.95 

Foot of White Horse Rapids I2 5-33 

Tahkeena River ^W 2 

Head of Lake Le Barge - I53-Q7 

Foot of Lake Le Barge 184.22 

Teslintoo River 215.88 

Big Salmon River 249.33 

Little Salmon River 285.54 

Five Finger Rapids 344-83 

Pelly River 403.29 

White River 499.1 1 



278 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

MILES. 

Stewart River 508.91 

Sixty-Mile Creek 530.41 

Dawson City 575-70 

Fort Reliance 582.20 

Forty-Mile River 627.08 

Boundary Line 66743 

MACKENZIE RIVER ROUTE. 

Edmonton to Athabasca Landing 90 

Athabasca Landing to Grand Rapids , . . . 167 

Grand Rapids to Fort McMurray 87 

Fort McMurray to Smith's Landing 287 

Smith's Landing to Fort Smith 16 

Fort Smith to Fort Resolution 190 

Fort Resolution to Fort Providence 167 

Fort Providence to Fort Simpson 157 

Fort Simpson to Fort Wrigley 134 

Fort Wrigley to Fort Norman 180 

Fort Norman to Fort Good Hope 169 

Fort Good Hope to Fort Macpherson 274 

Fort Macpherson to La Pierre's House 60 

La Pierre's House to the Porcupine 20 

Porcupine to the Yukon 400 

Total 2,424 

PEACE-LIARD-PELLY ROUTE. 

Edmonton to Peace River Crossing 260 

Peace River to Nelson Forks 240 

Down Nelson to the Junction with Liard 120 

Up Liard to Dease River 160 

Dease River to Pelly River 170 

Pelly River to the Junction with Lewis 220 

Lewis River to Klondike 200 

Total 1,370 



APPENDIX. 279 



APPENDIX II. 

FACTS ABOUT GOLD. 

In calculating the value of gold, one must figure on 
the basis of Troy weight: 24 grains one pennyweight, 
20 pennyweight one ounce, 12 ounces one pound. The 
price fixed by the United States Government for pure 
gold is $20.67 P er ounce. Pure gold is 1,000 fine or 
24 carats. The term carat is used to indicate degrees 
of fineness. Gold is divided into 24 carats or degrees 
of fineness. Pure gold, being 24 carats fine is worth 
as above stated. The other degrees range in price, as 
to weight, as follows: 

22 carat $18.94 14 carat $12.05 

20 carat 17.22 12 carat 10.33^ 

18 carat I5-50 10 carat 8.61 

16 carat x 3-78 8 carat 6.89 

6 carat 5.16 

Gold used by jewelers is seldom less than 6 carats 
fine. Following is the price, per ounce, according to 
fineness: 

Gold 1,000 fine is worth $20.67 

Gold 900 fine is worth 18.60 

Gold 800 fine is worth , IO \53 

Gold 700 fine is worth 1447 

Gold 600 fine is worth 12.40 

Gold 500 fine is worth I 0-33 

Gold 400 fine is worth 8.26 

Gold 300 fine is worth 6.20 

Gold 200 fine is worth 4.13 

Gold 100 fine is worth 2.06 



280 



THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



An ounce Troy or Apothecaries' weight contains 480 
Troy grains. An ounce Avoirdupois weight contains 
437i Troy grains. The grain is the unit of Troy and 
Apothecaries' weight, and the ounce is the unit of the 
Avoirdupois weight. One pound Troy or Apothecar- 
ies' weight contains 5,760 Troy grains. One pound 
Avoirdupois weight contains 7,000 Troy grains. 

All natural gold — that is, gold extracted from rocks 
or washed from the beds of streams — contains some 
alloy, generally silver, but sometimes platinum, copper 
and tellurium, and it varies in amount in different local- 
ities. 



APPENDIX. 28l 



APPENDIX III. 

CANADIAN AND ALASKAN MINING LAWS 
AND REGULATIONS. 

Following are the Canadian and Alaskan Mining 
Laws and Regulations in full: 

CANADIAN. 
Nature and Size of Claims. 

1. Bar diggings, a strip of land 100 feet wide at high- 
water mark and thence extending into the river to its 
lowest water level. 

2. The sides of a claim for bar diggings shall be two 
parallel lines run as nearly as possible at right angles 
to the stream and shall be marked by four legal posts, 
one at each end of the claim, at or about high-water 
mark; also one at each end of the claim at or about 
the edge of the water. One of the posts at high-water 
mark shall be legibly marked with the name of the 
miner and the date upon which the claim was staked. 

3. Dry diggings shall be 100 feet square, and shall 
have placed at each of its four corners a legal post, 
upon one of which shall be legibly marked the name of 
the miner and the date upon which the claim was 
staked. 

4. Creek and river claims shall be 500 feet long 
measured in the direction of the general course of the 
stream, and shall extend in width from base to base of 
the hill or bench on each side, but when the hills or 
benches are less than 100 feet apart the claim may be 
100 feet in depth. The sides of a claim shall be two 

19 



282 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

parallel lines run as nearly as possible at right angles 
to the stream. The sides shall be marked with legal 
posts at or about the edge of the water and at the rear 
boundaries of the claim. One of the legal posts at the 
stream shall be legibly marked with the name of the 
miner and the date upon which the claim was staked. 

5. Bench claims shall be 100 feet square. 

6. In defining the size of claims they shall be meas- 
ured horizontally, irrespective of inequalities on the 
surface of the ground. 

7. If any person or persons shall discover a new 
mine, and such discovery shall be established to the 
satisfaction of the gold commissioner, a claim for bar 
diggings 750 feet in length may be granted. A new 
stratum or auriferous earth or gravel situated in a 
locality where the claims are abandoned shall for this 
purpose be deemed a new mine, although the same 
locality shall have been previously worked at a different 
level. 

8. The forms of application for a grant for placer 
mining and the grant of the same shall be those con- 
tained in forms "H" and "F in the schedule hereto. 

9. A claim shall be recorded with the gold commis- 
sioner in whose district it is situated within three days 
after the location thereof, if it is located within ten 
miles of the commissioner's office. One extra day 
shall be allowed for making such record for every ad- 
ditional ten miles or fraction thereof. 

10. In the event of the absence of the gold commis- 
sioner from his office, entry for a claim may be granted 
by any person whom he may appoint to perform his 
duties in his absence. 

11. Entry shall not be granted for a claim which 
has not been staked by the applicant in person in the 
manner specified in these regulations. An affidavit 
that the claim was staked out by the applicant shall 
be embodied in form "H" of the schedule hereto. 

12. An entry fee of $15.00 shall be charged for the 
first year and an annual fee of $100.00 for each of the 



APPENDIX. 283 

following years. This provision shall apply to loca- 
tions for which entries have already been granted. 

13. After the recording of a claim the removal of any 
post by the holder thereof or by any person acting in 
his behalf for the purpose of changing the boundaries 
of his claim shall act as a forfeiture of the claim. 

14. The entry of every holder for a grant for placer 
mining must be renewed and his receipt relinquished 
and replaced every year. The entry fee being paid each 
year. 

15. No miner shall receive a grant for more than one 
mining claim in the same locality, but the same miner 
may hold any number of claims by purchase, and any 
number of miners may unite to work their claims in 
common upon such terms as they may arrange, pro- 
vided such agreement be registered with the gold com- 
missioner and a fee of $5.00 paid for each registra- 
tion. 

16. Any miner or miners may sell, mortgage or dis- 
pose of his or their claims, provided such disposal be 
registered with a fee of $2.00 paid to the gold com- 
missioner, who shall thereupon give the assignee a 
certificate in form "J" in the schedule hereto. 

17. Every miner shall during the continuance of his 
grant have the exclusive right of entry upon his own 
claim, for the miner-like working thereof, and the 
construction of a residence thereon, and shall be en- 
titled exclusively to all the proceeds realized therefrom; 
but he shall have no surface rights therein; and the 
gold commissioner may grant to the holders of ad- 
jacent claims such right of entry thereon as may be 
absolutely necessary for the working of their claims, 
upon such terms as may to him seem reasonable. He 
may also grant permits to miners to cut timber thereon 
for their own use, upon payment of the dues prescribed 
by the regulations in that behalf. 

18. Every miner shall be entitled to the use of so 
much of the water naturally flowing through or past 
his claim, and not already lawfully appropriated, as 



284 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

shall, in the opinion of the gold commissioner be 
necessary for the due working thereof; and shall be 
entitled to drain his own claim free of charge. 

19. A claim shall be deemed to be abandoned and 
open to occupation and entry by any person when the 
same shall have remained unworked on working days 
by the grantee thereof or by some person on his be- 
half for the space of seventy-two hours, unless sickness 
or other reasonable cause be shown to the satisfaction 
of the gold commissioner, or unless the grantee is ab- 
sent on leave given by the commissioner, and the gold 
commissioner, upon obtaining evidence satisfactory to 
himself that this provision is not being complied with, 
may cancel the entry given for claim. 

20. If the land upon which a claim has been located 
is not the property of the crown, it will be necessary for 
the person who applied for entry to furnish proof that 
he has acquired from the owner of the land the sur- 
face rights before entry can be granted. 

21. If the occupier of the lands has not received a 
patent therefor, the purchase money of the surface 
rights must be paid to the crown, and a patent of the 
surface rights will issue to the party who acquired the 
mining rights. The money so collected will either be 
refunded to the occupier of the land, when he is en- 
titled to a patent therefor, or will be credited to him 
on account of payment for land. 

22. When the party obtaining the mining rights to 
lands cannot make an arrangement with the owner 
thereof for the acquisition of the surface rights, it shall 
be lawful for him to give notice to the owner or his 
agent or the occupier to appoint an arbitrator to act with 
another arbitrator named by him, in order to award the 
amount of compensation to which the owner or occu- 
pant shall be entitled. The notice mentioned in this 
section shall be according to form to be obtained upon 
application from the gold commissioner for the dis- 
trict in which the lands in question lie, and shall, when 
practicable, be personally served on iuch owner, or 



APPENDIX. 285 

his agent, if known, or occupant; and after reasonable 
efforts have been made to effect personal service with- 
out success, then such notice shall be served by leaving 
it at, or sending by registered letter to, the last place 
of abode of the owner, agent or occupant. Such notice 
shall be served upon the owner, or agent, within a 
period to be fixed by the gold commissioner before 
the expiration of the time limited in such notice. If 
the proprietor refuses or declines to appoint an arbitra- 
tor, or when, for any other reason, no arbitrator is ap- 
pointed by the proprietor in the time limited therefor 
in the notice provided for by this section, the gold com- 
missioner for the district in which the lands in question 
lie shall, on being satisfied by affidavit that such notice 
has come to the knowledge of such owner, agent or oc- 
cupant, or that such owner, agent or occupant wilfully 
evades the service of such notice, or cannot be found, 
and that reasonable efforts have been made to effect 
such service, and that the notice was left at the last 
place of abode of such owner, agent or occupant, ap- 
point an arbitrator on his behalf. 

23. (a) All arbitrators appointed under the authori- 
ty of these regulations shall be sworn before a Justice 
of the Peace to the impartial discharge of the duties as- 
signed to them, and they shall forthwith proceed to es- 
timate the reasonable damages which the owner or oc- 
cupants of such lands, according to their several inter- 
ests therein, shall sustain by reason of such prospect- 
ing and mining operations. 

(b) In estimating such damages, the arbitrators shall 
determine the value of the land irrespectively of any 
enhancement thereof from the existence of minerals 
therein. 

(c) In case such arbitrators cannot agree, they may 
select a third arbitrator, and when the two arbitrators 
cannot agree upon a third arbitrator the Gold Commis- 
sioner for the district in which the lands in question lie 
shall select such third arbitrator. 

(d) The award of any two such arbitrators made in 



286 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

writing shall be final, and shall be filed with the Gold 
Commissioner for the district in which the lands lie. 

If any case arise for which no provision is made in 
these regulations, the provisions of the regulations 
governing the disposal of mineral lands other than coal 
lands approved by His Excellency the Governor in 
Council on the 9th of November, 1889, shall apply. 

RECENT CHANGE. 

The Department of the Interior has forwarded the 
following notice to the Yukon: 

"Clauses 4 and 8 of the regulations governing placer 
mining on the Yukon River and its tributaries are 
amended by reducing the length of a creek and river 
claim to 100 feet, and the length of a creek and river 
claim to be granted to the discoverer of a new mine to 
200 feet. The fee for the renewal of an entry for a 
claim has been reduced from $100 to $15. 



FORM "J" 

CERTIFICATE OF THE ASSIGNMENT OF A PLACER 
MINING CLAIM. 



No 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 

Agency 189. . 

This is to certify that (B. C.) has (or have) 

filed an assignment in due form dated 

189. ., and accompanied by a registration fee of two 

dollars, of the grant to (A. B.) of 

of the right (insert description of claim) to mine in 

for one year 

from 189. . 



APPENDIX. 



287 



This certificate entitled the said (B. C.) 

to all the rights and privileges of the said (A. 

B.) in respect of the claim assigned, that is to say, to 
the exclusive right of entry upon the said claim for 
miner-like working thereof and the construction of a 
residence thereon, and the exclusive right to all the 
proceeds therefrom, for the remaining portion of the 
year for which the said claim was granted to the said 

(A. B.) that is to say, until the 

day of 189.., the said (B. 

C.) shall be entitled to the use of so much of the water 
naturally flowing through or past his (or their) claim 
and not already lawfully appropriated as shall be neces- 
sary for the due working thereof, and to drain the 
claim free of charge. 

This grant does not convey to the said 

(B. C.) any surface rights in said claim, or any rights 
of ownership in the soil covered by said claim, and the 
said grant shall lapse and be forfeited unless the claim 
is continually, and in good faith, worked by the said 
(B. C.) or his (or their) asso- 
ciates. 

The rights hereby granted are those laid down in 
the Dominion Mining Regulations, and no more, and 
are subject to all the provisions of the said regulations, 
whether the same are expressed herein or not. 



Gold Commissioner. 



FORM "H." 

APPLICATION FOR GRANT FOR PLACER MINING 
CLAIM AND AFFIDAVIT OF APPLICANT. 



I, (or we) of hereby apply under 

the Dominion Mining Regulations, for a grant of a 
claim for placer mining as defined in the said regula- 



288 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

tions, in (here describe locality) 

and I (or we) solemnly swear : 

1. That I (or we) have discovered therein a deposit 
of (here name the metal or mineral). 

2. That I (or we) am (or are) to the best of my (or 
our) knowledge and belief, the first discover (or dis- 
coverers) of the said deposit; or, 

3. That the said claim was previously granted to 
(here name the last grantee), but has remained un- 
worked by the said grantee for not less than 

4. That I (or we) am (or are) unaware that the land 
is other than vacant Dominion Land. 

5. That I (or we) did, on the day of 

mark out on the ground, in accordance in every partic- 
ular with the provisions of the Mining Regulations for 
the Yukon River and its tributaries, the claim for which 
I (or we) make this application, and that in so doing I 
(or we) did not encroach on any other claim or mining 
location previously laid out by any other person. 

6. That the said mining claim contained, as nearly as 

I (or we) could measure or estimate, an area of 

square feet, and that the description (and sketch, if 
any) of this date hereto attached,, signed by me (or us) 
sets (or set) forth in detail, to the best of my (or our) 
knowledge and ability, its position, form and dimen- 
sions. 

7. That I (or we) make this application in good faith, 
to acquire the claim for the sole purpose of mining, 
prosecuted by myself (or us) or by myself and asso- 
ciates, or by my (or our) assigns. 

Sworn before me at this 

day of , 189. . 

(Signature.) 



APPENDIX. 289 

FORM "I." 

GRANT FOR PLACER CLAIM. 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 

No Agency 189 . . 

In consideration of the payment ot the fee prescribed 
by Clause 12 of the mining regulations for the Yukon 

River and its Tributaries by (A. B.) of , 

accompanying his (or their) application No 

dated 189. . for a mining claim in (here 

insert description of locality), the Minister of the In- 
terior hereby grants to the said (A. B.) 

for the term of one year from the date here- 
of the exclusive right of entry upon the claim (here 
describe in detail the claim granted) for the miner- 
like working thereof and the construction of a resi- 
dence thereon, and the exclusive right to all the pro- 
ceeds realized therefrom. 

The said (A. B.) shall be entitled 

to the use of so much water naturally flowing through 
or past his (or their) claim, and not already lawfully 
appropriated, as shall be necessary for the due work- 
ing thereof, and to drain his (or their) claim, free of 
charge. 

This grant does not convey to the said (A. B.) 

any surface rights in the said claim, or any right 

of ownership in the soil covered by the said claim ; and 
the said grant shall lapse and be forfeited unless the 
claim is continuously and in good faith worked by the 
said (A. B.) or his (or their) associates. 

The rights hereby granted are those laid down in 
the aforesaid mining regulations, and no more, and are 
subject to all the provisions of the said regulations, 
whether the same are expressed herein or not. 

Gold Commissioner. 

19 



290 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



ALASKA MINING LAWS. 

The Act of Congress of May 17, 1884, providing a 
civil government for Alaska, provides that: "The laws 
of the United States relating to mining claims and the 
rights incident thereto, shall, from and after the pass- 
age of this act, be in full force and effect in said dis- 
trict." The further mining laws applicable are as fol- 
lows: 

United States Revised Statutes. — Sec. 2318. In all 
cases lands valuable for minerals shall be reserved from 
sale, except as otherwise expressly directed by law. 

Sec. 2319. All valuable mineral deposits in lands 
belonging to the United States, both surveyed and un- 
surveyed, are hereby declared to be free and open to 
exploration and purchase, and the lands in which they 
are found to occupation and purchase, by citizens of 
the United States and those who have declared their 
intention to become such, under regulations prescribed 
by law, and according to the local customs or rules of 
miners in the several mining districts, so far as the 
same are applicable and not inconsistent with the laws 
of the United States. 

Sec. 2320. Mining claims upon veins or lodes or 
quartz or other rock in place, bearing gold, silver, cin- 
nabar, lead, tin, copper, or other valuable deposits 
heretofore located, shall be governed as to length along 
the vein or lode by the customs, regulations, and laws 
in force at the date of location. A mining claim lo- 
cated after the tenth day of May, eighteen hundred and 
seventy-two, whether located by one or more persons, 
may equal, but shall not exceed, one thousand five hun- 
dred feet in length along the vein or lode; but no lo- 
lation of a mining claim shall be made until the discov- 
ery of the vein or lode within trie limits of the claim lo- 
cated. No claim shall extend more than three hun- 
dred feet on each side of the middle of the vein at the 
surface, nor shall any claim be limited by any mining 



APPENDIX. 29I 

regulation to less than twenty-five feet on each side of 
the middle of the vein at the surface, except where ad- 
verse rights existing on the tenth day of May, eighteen 
hundred and seventy-two, render such limitation neces- 
sary. The end lines of each claim shall be parallel to 
each other. 

Sec. 2322. The locators of all mining locations here- 
tofore made or which shall hereafter be made on any 
mineral vein, lode, or ledge, situated on the public 
domain, their heirs and assigns, where no adverse 
claim exists on the tenth day of May, eighteen hun- 
dred and seventy-two, so long as they comply with the 
laws of the United States, and with state, territorial, 
and local regulations not in conflict with the laws of 
the United States governing their possessory title, 
shall have the exclusive right of possession and enjoy- 
ment of all the surface included within the lines of their 
locations, and of all veins, lodes, and ledges through- 
out their entire depth, the top of apex of which lies in- 
side of such surface lines extended downward vertical- 
ly, although such veins, lodes, or ledges may so far de- 
part from a perpendicular in their course downward as 
to extend outside the vertical side lines of such surface 
locations. But their right of possession to such out- 
side parts of such veins or ledges shall be confined to 
such portions thereof as lie between vertical planes 
drawn downward as above described, through the end 
lines of their locations, so continued in their own di- 
rection that such planes will intersect such exterior 
parts of such veins or ledges. And nothing in this 
section shall authorize the locator or possession of a 
vein or lode which extends in its downward course be- 
yond the vertical lines of his claim to enter upon the 
surface of a claim owned or possessed by another. 

Sec. 2324. The miners of each mining district may 
make regulations not in conflict with the laws of the 
United States, or with the laws of the state or territory 
in which the district is situated, governing the location, 
manner of recording, amount of work necessary to 



292 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

hold possession of a mining claim, subject to the fol- 
lowing requirements: The location must be distinct- 
ly marked on the ground, so that its boundaries can be 
readily traced. All records of mining claims hereafter 
made shall contain the name or names of the locators, 
the date of the location, and such description of the 
claim or claims located by reference to some natural 
object or permanent monument as will identify the 
claim. On each claim located after the tenth day of 
May, eighteen hundred and seventy-two, and until a 
patent has been issued therefor, not less than one hun- 
dred dollars' worth of labor shall be performed or im- 
provements made during each year. On all claims lo- 
cated prior to the tenth of May, eighteen hundred and 
seventy-two, ten dollars' worth of labor shall be per- 
formed or improvements made by the tenth day of 
June, eighteen hundred and seventy-four, and each 
year thereafter, for each one hundred feet in length 
along the vein, until a patent has been issued therefor; 
but where such claims are held in common, such ex- 
penditure may be made upon any one claim; and upon 
a failure to comply with these conditions, the claim or 
mine upon which such failure occurred shall be opened 
to relocation in the same manner as if no location of 
the same had ever been made: Provided, That the 
original locators, their heirs, assigns, or legal repre- 
sentatives, have not resumed work upon the claim after 
failure and before such location. Upon the failure of 
any one of several co-owners to contribute his propor- 
tion of the expenditures required hereby, the co-own- 
ers who have performed the labor or made the im- 
provements may, at the expiration of the year, give 
such delinquent co-owner personal notice in writing 
or notice by publication in the newspaper published 
nearest the claim, for at least once a week for ninety 
days, and if at the expiration of ninety days after such 
notice in writing or by publication such delinquent 
should fail or refuse to contribute his proportion of the 
expenditure required by this section, his interest in the 



APPENDIX. 293 

claim shall become the property of his co-owners, who 
have made the expenditures. 

Sec. 2336. Where two or more veins intersect or 
cross each other, priority of title shall govern, and such 
prior location shall be entitled to all ore or mineral 
contained within the space of intersection ; but the sub- 
sequent location shall have the right of way through 
the space of intersection for the purposes of the con- 
venient working of the mine. And where two or 
more veins unite, the oldest or prior location shall 
take the vein below the point of union, including all 
the space of intersection. 

Sec. 2335. A patent for any land claimed and lo- 
cated for valuable deposits may be obtained in the 
following manner: Any person, association, or cor- 
poration authorized to locate a claim under this chap- 
ter, having claimed and located a piece of land for such 
purposes, who has, or have, complied with the terms 
of this chapter, may file in the proper land-office an 
application for a patent, under oath, showing such 
compliance, together with a plat and field-notes of the 
claim or claims in common, made by or under the di- 
rection of the United States Surveyor-General, show- 
ing accurately the boundaries of the claim or claims, 
which shall be distinctly marked by monuments on 
the ground, and shall post a copy of such plat, together 
with a notice of such application for a patent, in a con- 
spicious place on the land embraced in such plat 
previous to the filing of the application for a patent, 
and shall file an affidavit of at least two persons that 
such notice has been duly posted, and shall file a copy 
of the notice in such land-office, and shall thereupon 
be entitled to a patent for the land, in the manner fol- 
lowing: The register of the land-office, upon the fil- 
ing of such application, plat, field-notes, notices, and 
affidavits, shall publish a notice that such application 
has been made, for the period of sixty days, in a news- 
paper to be by him designated as published nearest to 
such claim; and he shall also post such notice in his 



294 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

office for the same period. The claimant at the time of 
filing this application, or at any time thereafter, within 
sixty days of publication, shall file with the register a 
certificate of the United States surveyor-general that 
five hundred dollars' worth of labor has been expended 
on improvements made upon the claim by himself or 
grantors; that the plat is correct, with such further 
description by such reference to natural objects or per- 
manent monuments as shall identify the claim, and 
furnish an accurate description, to be incorporated in 
the patent. At the expiration of the sixty days of pub- 
lication the cliamant shall file his affidavit, showing 
that the plat and notice have been posted in a con- 
spicuous place on the claim during such period of pub- 
lication. If no adverse claim shall have been filed with 
the register and the receiver of the proper land-office 
at the expiration of the sixty days of publication, it 
shall be assumed that the applicant is entitled to a 
patent, upon the payment to the proper officer of five 
dollars per acre, and that no adverse claim exists; and 
thereafter no objection from third parties to the is- 
suance of a patent shall be heard, except it be shown 
that the applicant has failed to comply with the terms 
of this chapter. 

Sec. 2327. The description of vein or lode claims, 
upon surveyed lands, shall designate the location of the 
claim with reference to the lines of the public surveys, 
but need not conform therewith; but where a patent 
shall be issued for claims upon unsurveyed lands, the 
surveyor-general, in extending the surveys, shall ad- 
just the same to the boundaries of such patented claim, 
according to the plat or description thereof, but so as 
in no case to interfere with or change the location of 
any such patented claim. 

Act of Congress of January 22, 1880. — An Act to 
amend sections twenty-three hundred and twenty-four 
and twenty-three hundred and twenty-five of the Re- 
vised Statutes of the United States concerning mineral 
lands. 



APPENDIX. 295 

Be it enacted, etc., That section twenty-three hun- 
dred and twenty-five of the Revised Statutes of the 
United States be amended by adding hereto the follow- 
ing words: "Provided, That where the claimant for 
a patent is not a resident of or within the land district 
wherein the vein, lodge, ledge or deposit sought to 
be patented is located, the application for patent and 
the affidavits required to be made in this section by the 
claimant for such patent may be made by his, her, or 
its authorized agent, where said agent is conversant 
with the facts sought to be established by said affi- 
davits: And provided, That this section shall apply 
to all applications now pending for patents to mineral 
lands." 

Sec. 2. That section twenty-three hundred and 
twenty-four of the Revised Statutes of the United 
States be amended by adding thereto the following 
words: "Provided, That the period within which the 
work required to be done annually on all unpatented 
mineral claims shall commence on the first day of Janu- 
ary succeeding the date of location of such claim, and 
this section shall apply to all claims located since the 
tenth of May, anno Domini eighteen hundred and 
seventy-two." 

Act of Congress of February 11, 1875. — An Act to 
amend section two thousand three hundred and twen- 
ty-four of the Revised Statutes, relating to the de- 
velopment of the mining resources of the United 
States. 

Be it enacted, etc., That section two thousand three 
hundred and twenty-four of the Revised Statutes be, 
and the same is hereby amended to that where a person 
or company has or may run a tunnel for the purpose 
of developing a lode or lodes, owned by said person or 
company, the money so expended in said tunnel shall 
be taken and considered as expended on said lode or 
lodes, whether located prior to or since the passage of 
said act, and such person or company shall not be re- 
quired to perform work on the surface of said lode or 



296 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

lodes in order to hold the same as required by said act. 
[See page 43.] 

United States Law. — Sec. 2323. Where a tunnel is 
run for the development of a vein or lode, or for the dis- 
covery of mines, the owners of such tunnel shall have 
the right of possession of all veins or lodes within three 
thousand feet from the face of such tunnel on the line 
thereof, not previously known to exist, discovered in 
such tunnel, to the same extent as if discovered from 
the surface: and locations on the line of such tunnel 
of veins or lodes, not appearing on the surface, made 
by other parties after the commencement of the tunnel, 
and while the same is being prosecuted with reasonable 
diligence, shall be invalid ; but failure to prosecute the 
work on the tunnel for six months shall be considered 
as an abandonment of the right to all undiscovered 
veins on the line of such tunnel. 

PLACER CLAIMS. 

Sec. 2329. Claims usually called "placers," includ- 
ing all forms of deposit, excepting veins of quartz, or 
other rock in place, shall be subject to entry and pat- 
ent, under like circumstances and conditions, and upon 
similar proceedings, as are provided for vein or lode 
claims; but where the lands have been previously sur- 
veyed by the United States, the entry in its exterior 
limits shall conform to the legal subdivisions of the 
public lands. 

United States Law. — Sec. 2330. Legal subdivisions 
of forty acres may be subdivided into ten-acre tracts; 
and two or more persons, or associations of persons, 
having contiguous claims of any size, although such 
claims may be less than ten acres each, may make 
joint entry thereof; but no location of a placer-claim, 
made after the ninth day of July, eighteen hundred 
and seventy, shall exceed one hundred and sixty acres 
for any one person or association of persons, which lo- 
cation shall conform to the United States survevs ; and 



APPENDIX. 397 

nothing in this section contained shall defeat or impair 
any bona fide pre-emption or homestead claim upon 
agricultural lands, or authorize the sale of the im- 
provements of any bona fide settler to any pur- 
chaser. 

Sec. 2331. Where placer-claims are upon surveyed 
lands, and conform to legal subdivisions, no further 
survey or plat shall be required, and all placer mining 
claims located after the tenth of May, eighteen hun- 
dred and seventy-two, shall conform as near as prac- 
ticable with the United States system of public-land 
surveys, and the rectangular subdivisions of such sur- 
veys, and no such location shall include more than 
twenty acres for each individual claimant; but where 
placer-claims can not be conformed to legal subdivis- 
ions, survey and plat shall be made as on unsurveyed 
lands; and where by the segregation of mineral lands 
in any legal subdivision a quantity of agricultural land 
less than forty acres remains, such fractional portions 
of agricultural land may be entered by any party quali- 
fied by law, for homestead or pre-emption purposes. 

PLACER CLAIMS CONTAINING LODES. 

United States Law. — Sec. 2333. Where the same 
person, association, or corporation is in possession of 
a placer claim, and also a vein or lode included within 
the boundaries thereof, application shall be made for a 
patent for the placer claim, with the statement that it 
includes such vein or lode, and in such case a patent 
shall issue for a placer-claim, subject to the provisions 
of this chapter, including such vein or lode, upon the 
payment of five dollars per acre for such vein or lode 
claim, and twenty-five feet of surface on each side there- 
of. The remainder of the placer claim, or any placer 
claim not embracing any vein or lode claim, shall be 
paid for at the rate of two dollars and fifty cents per 
acre, together with all costs of proceedings; and where 
a vein or lode, such as is described in section twenty- 
20 



298 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

three hundred and twenty, is known to exist within 
the boundaries of a placer-claim, an application for a 
patent for such placer claim which does not include an 
application for the vein or lode claim shall be con- 
strued as a conclusive declaration that the claimant of 
the placer claim has no right of possession of the vein 
or lode claim; but where the existence of a vein or 
lode in a placer-claim is not known, a patent for the 
placer-claim shall convey all valuable mineral and other 
deposits within the boundaries thereof. 

United States Law. — Sec. 2332. Where such person 
or association, they and their grantors, have held and 
worked their claims for a period equal to the time pre- 
scribed by the statute of limitations for mining claims of 
the State or Territory where the same may be situated, 
evidence of such possession and working of the claims 
for such period shall be sufficient to establish a right to 
a patent thereto under this chapter, in the absence of 
any adverse claim; but nothing in this chapter shall 
be deemed to impair any lien which may have at- 
tached in any way whatever to any mining claim or 
property thereto attached prior to the issuance of a 
patent. 

United States Law. — Sec. 2321. Proof of citizen- 
ship, under this chapter, may consist, in the case of an 
individual, of his own affidavit thereof; in the case of 
an association of persons unincorporated, of the affi- 
davit of their authorized agent, made on his own 
knowledge, or upon information and belief; and in 
the case of a corporation organized under the laws of 
the United States, or of any State or Territory thereof, 
by the filing of a certified copy of their charter or cer- 
tificate of incorporation. 



APPENDIX. 299 



APPENDIX IV. 
CANADIAN LAND REGULATIONS. 

It is reasonable to suppose that as the mining camps 
increase in the gold fields of the far northwest, there 
will be a considerable immigration into the agricul- 
tural and stock-raising prairies adjacent thereto in 
Canadian territory. Enterprise in the gold districts 
will make farming, stock-raising, and dairy products 
very profitable in that region, and it is fair to suppose 
that cattle and horse ranches, dairy farms, and ag- 
ricultural pursuits generally will at once be developed 
in the Peace River country, from which the mining 
camps in the mountains and slopes to the westward 
may be easily supplied, and at great profit to settlers. 
One may expect to see a large flouring mill established 
in the Peace River country before the end of another 
year. 

On account of these prospectors it will be to the ad- 
vantage of many readers to include here the land laws 
and regulations of Canada in respect of this territory. 
Here follows a summary of the regulations applicable 
to the free grants or homesteads, sale, settlement, etc., 
of the lands of Canada : 

Under the Dominion Lands Regulations all sur- 
veyed even-numbered sections, excepting 8 and 26 
(Hudson Bay lands), in Manitoba and the Northwest 
Territories, which have not been homesteaded, re- 
served to provide wood lots for settlers, or otherwise 
disposed of or reserved, are to be held exclusively for 
homestead. Odd-numbered sections (with the excep- 
tion of 1 1 and 29, which are school lands) for 24 miles 
on each side of the Canadian Pacific Railway, may be 
generally stated to be railway lands, purchasable from 



500 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

the company, and not open for homestead. There are 
also other railway lands, which have been appropriated 
in aid of similar undertakings, and generally speaking 
it may be said that sections bearing odd numbers are 
either disposed of or reserved as grants in aid of the 
construction of railways. 

Free grants of one quarter-section (160 acres) of 
surveyed agricultural lands may be obtained by any 
person who is the sole head of a family, or by any male 
who has attained the age of 18 years, on application 
to the local agent of Dominion Lands for the district 
in which the parcel applied for is situated, and by mak- 
ing an entry and within six months thereafter erect- 
ing a habitable house and commencing actual resi- 
dence upon the land, and continuing to reside upon it 
for at least six months in each year for the three next 
succeeding years, and doing reasonable cultivation 
duties during that period. An office fee of $10 is levied. 
For lands which have been occupied an additional $10 
is charged to meet inspection and cancellation ex- 
penses. 

Persons making entry for homesteads on and after 
ist September in any year are allowed until 1st June 
following to perfect their entries by commencing the 
performance of their settlement duties in accordance 
with the terms of entry in each case. 

In the event of a homesteader desiring to secure his 
patent within a shorter period than the three years, he 
will be permitted to purchase it at the Government 
price ruling at the time of entry, on furnishing proof 
that he has resided on the land for at least twelve 
months subsequent to date of entry, and has cultivated 
30 acres thereof. 

The pre-emption system has been abolished, but a 
settler desiring to acquire a larger holding than 160 
acres, and having the means to pay for it, can buy 
from the Government a quarter-section (adjoining his 
homestead, if then available), one-fourth of the pur- 
chase money being payable at the time of the sale, and 



APPENDIX. 3 01 

the balance in three equal annual instalments with in- 
terest at six per cent per annum, or he may be able to 
buy from the railway company the whole or part of an 
adjoining odd-numbered section, as he may find ex- 
pedient. 

Free grants can be obtained within a reasonable dis- 
tance to the west of Winnipeg, and of the line of rail- 
way. An inquiry of any of the Government land agents 
will, however, elicit information as to the most desira- 
ble land available for settlement. 

Information respecting timber, mineral, coal,, graz- 
ing and hay lands may also be obtained from any of 
the land agents. Homesteaders are entitled to free 
permits to cut a specified quantity of timber for their 
own use only, upon payment of an office fee of 25 
cents. 

It must be distinctly understood that the land regu- 
lations are subject to variations from time to time. 
Settlers should take care to obtain from the land agents 
when making their entry an explanation of the actual 
regulations in force at that time, and the clause of the 
Act under which the entry is made endorsed upon the 
receipt, so that no question or difficulty may then or 
thereafter arise. 

The settler may sometimes find it convenient to buy 
lands partly improved, with buildings and fences upon 
them, of private proprietors. It very frequently hap- 
pens that half-breed or other lands may be obtained 
on moderate terms. 

The following diagram shows the manner in which 
the country is surveyed. It represents a township — 
that is, a tract of land six miles square, containing 36 
sections of one square mile each. These sections are 
subdivided into quarter-sections of 160 acres each. 



302 



THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



TOWNSHIP DIAGRAM. 



Townshi? Diaghjlm:, 
640 Acres. K. 





••31:- 


32 


33 


-34- 


35 


•66 




• 30 • 


School 

••29- 

Lands 


•2'8-- 


-,27- ■ 


H.B. 

• -2B-. 
Lands 


..25.. 


w. 


■19- • 


•20- 


• • 21- • 


■•.22- 


•■23-- 


•24- 


•-18-- 


•■■17" 


-IB-- 


■$?■■ 


•14- 


-is-; 




'•"7- • 


h.:b. 

••8-- 
Lands 


• -9- 


■■10- 


School 
•11- 

Lands 


• 12- 




•6 


■5- • 


•4- 


3 


., 2... 


• •1 - 



E. 



The Government makes no advances of money to 
settlers, and, for the better encouragement of bona 
fide settlement, reserve to themselves the right to de- 
clare null and void every assignment or transfer of 
homestead or pre-emption right made before the issue 
of the patent, except in cases where any person or com- 
pany is desirous of assisting intending settlers, when 
the sanction of the Minister of the Interior to the ad- 
vance having been obtained, the settler has power to 
create a charge upon his homestead for a sum not ex- 
ceeding six hundred dollars, and interest not exceeding 
8 per cent per annum, provided that particulars of how 
such an advance has been expended for his benefit be 
first furnished to the settler and verified by the local 
agent, or if the charge be made previous to the ad- 
vance, then such charge shall only operate to the ex- 



APPENDIX. 303 

tent certified to by the local agent as having been ac- 
tually advanced to or expended for the benefit of the 
settler. One-half of the advance may be devoted to 
paying the cost of the passage of the settler, paying 
for the homestead entry, providing for the subsistence 
of the settler and his family, and to erecting and insur- 
ing buildings on the homestead, and the remainder 
to breaking land and providing horses, cattle, and fur- 
niture, farm implements, seed grain, etc. 

For the further protection of the settler it is provided 
that the time for payment of the first instalment of in- 
terest on any such advance shall not be earlier than the 
1st of November in any year, and shall not be within 
two years from the establishment of the settler upon the 
homestead, and also that trie settler shall not be bound 
to pay the capital of such advance within a less period 
than four years from the date of his establishment on 
his homestead. 



\ 



304 



THE GOLDEN NORTH. 



APPENDIX V. 



SUPPLIES. 



The following list of supplies for one man for a year, 
for Klondike travel and mining, may be cut down to 
suit, but it contains about everything a man wants for 
the trip : 

Flour lbs. 400 

Corn meal 20 

Rolled oats 36 

Rice 25 

Beans 100 

Sugar 75 

Dried Fruits 75 

Candles 20 

Dry Salt Pork 50 

Evaporated Potatoes 25 

Evaporated Onions 5 

Bacon 150 

Baking Powder 10 

Soda 3 

Salt 20 

Ginger J 

Pepper 1 

Mustard £ 

Coffee 25 

Tea 10 

Compressed Soup Vegetables 10 

Soap 5 

Condensed Milk tins 24 

Yeast Cakes pkg 6 

Matches 60 

Butter, Extract of Beef, Tobacco, Jamaica Ginger, 
Evaporated Vinegar. 



APPENDIX, 3^5 

Gold pan 1 

Granite buckets 2 

Knife and fork 2 

Spoons, assorted 6 

Bread pan 1 

Cups 2 

Plates, tin 3 

Whet stone , 

Coffee pot 

Pick and handles 

Hatchet 

Saws, whip 

Saws, hand 

Shovels 

Files, assorted 

Axe and handle 

Draw knife 

Brace and bits, assorted 

Chisels, assorted 3 

Butcher knife 

Compass 

Revolver 

Stove 

Frying pan 

Rope, half-inch, 150 feet; Nails, 20 lbs.; Pitch, 
Oakum, Medicine. 

2 augers, 1 and 2 inch. 

4 steel drills, 1 inch. 

1 heavy hammer, 4 tbs. 

1 single hand hammer. 

Fuse and caps. 

75 tbs. dynamite. 

1 folding oven. 

1 heavy duck tent, 12x12, wall sides (center pole 
may be of 4-inch piping in 4 feet lengths to serve as a 
stove pipe). 

2 rubber sheets. 

1 large cow hide, tanned with hair on, is very useful. 

2 pairs heavy blankets. 



306 THE GOLDEN NORTH. 

1 rubber coat. 

2 pairs rubber boots. 

2 pairs walking shoes with nails. 
10 pairs of moccasins. 

i pair snow shoes. 
Socks, mitts and gloves. 

3 suits underwear. 

2 suits Mackinaw clothing. 
Mosquito netting. 
Snow glasses. 
Sheath knife. 

The cost of this outfit at Seattle, or Calgary, is about 
$150. It will require about $10,000 to equip an expe- 
dition of 50 men at Calgary, for, say eighteen months. 
In addition to supplies of provisions, clothing, etc., 
there will be an additional cost of $5,000 for, say 50 
native horses; 40 buckboards fitted with wheels and 
bobs, harnesses, extra feed for horses, and incidentals. 
It will therefore require $15,000 to thoroughly equip an 
expedition of say 50 men for the northwest route via 
Edmonton and the Peace, Liard and Pelly Rivers. 
Such an expedition should have $5,000 of a surplus on 
hand for emergencies. 

To sum up, parties of the following size could reach 
the Klondike, via the Peace-Liard-Pelly route, from 
Edmonton, with supplies for 18 months, at the cost 
given hereunder, including boats for the open season, 
and horses and sleds for the ice season: 

Parties of 4 $ 1,500 

Parties of 10 4,5°° 

Parties of 20 8,000 

Parties of 50 1 5<°°° 

Parties of 100 25,000 

In addition to the amounts named, such expeditions 
should have a surplus of from $500 to $5,000 on hand 
for emergencies. It will require four times these 



APPENDIX. 30/ 

amounts to carry like expeditions, with equal supplies 
and provisions, by any other route now traveled. The 
Peace-Liard-Pelly route is being quite extensively 
traveled at the present time by Canadian expeditions. 

Expeditions to the far north gold fields via the north- 
west should consist of at least four or five persons, and 
they will probably be more successful if composed of 
twenty or more. None but experienced miners should 
be taken, except that with the larger expeditions, car- 
penters, blacksmiths, boat-builders, a surveyor and a 
physician and surgeon should be included. It is indis- 
pensable that, even with the smallest expeditions, one 
well acquainted with the uses of the medicine chest 
should be taken. There are no dangerous diseases 
indigenous to the country, but scurvy is liable to pre- 
vail in the winter season, and should be guarded 
against carefully. Accidents are always liable to occur, 
and in such emergencies there should be some one at 
hand, with proper appliances, who knows how to dress 
a wound, tie an artery or put in a few stitches to facili- 
tate healing. 

There will be a great deal of prospecting for gold in 
the Klondike country, both east and west of the great 
watershed next spring and summer. This work will 
be best carried on by the larger expeditions, carrying 
with them extensive supplies. The Stewart, Macmillan 
and the upper branches of the Pelly will no doubt be 
visited, as also the mountain streams of the Liard and 
Peace Rivers. Should rich strikes of gold be met with 
on these and the many other rivers not yet explored, 
large parties could locate claims, and the members of 
such expeditions would be sufficiently close to each 
other to render life in the mining camp comparatively 
attractive. The larger expeditions could also do a 
profitable transportation and townsite business, as new 
discoveries of gold will be sure to attract others to 
their locations. 





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